Future of Information Technology

Java Virtual Machine

2010-08-18T03:25:00.000-07:00

http://www.particle.kth.se/~lindsey/JavaCourse/Book/Part1/Supplements/Chapter01/JVM.html

programming language

2010-08-17T01:14:00.000-07:00

concept of programming language
http://www.answers.com/topic/programming-language

What is a Debug Monitor and How Can it Benefit Me?

2010-08-17T00:57:00.000-07:00

A debug monitor is very powerful graphical or console mode tool that monitors all the activities that are handled by the WinDriver Kernel. You can use the debug monitor to see how each command that is sent to the kernel is executed.

A WinDriver Kernel is a driver development toolkit inside ones computer that simplifies the creation of drivers. A driver is used in a computer so that the computer can read the devices that are in the computer or that get attached to the computer. If you were to hook up a printer to your computer, you would first need to install its driver so that the computer could create graphics or a console so that you could control your printer through the computer. The same thing goes for audio devices, internet devices, video devices.

A debug monitor, simply put, is a tool that helps to find and reduce the number of bugs and defects in a computer program or any electrical device within or attached to the computer in order to make it act the way it should. While the driver is being created and downloaded, the debug monitor helps it work properly. For example, when an armored car drives up to a bank and the guards have to transfer money from the truck to the bank, there are special guards that stand watch to make sure no one tries to rob them thus making the transaction go smoothly. Those guards could be the debug monitors in the computer industry.

If the debugging monitor locates a bug or defect in any of the equipment, it will first try to reproduce the problem which will allow a programmer to view each string that was within the bug or defect range and try to fix it. A programmer is a technician who has learned the basic format of computers that make them run. These are strings of technical information that most people using computers will never see. For example, using a clock. The general public will plug in the clock and use it to tell time but will not open it up to see how it works. That is saved for the people who fix clocks. They are the programmers of clocks in the computer industry.

The programmer will delete strings or add new ones and then use the debug monitor to re-create the driver download to see if he fixed the problem. This can be a tedious task with all the processes that run in the computer, but the debug monitor helps to make it a lot easier.

More details about LINUX

2010-08-17T00:54:00.000-07:00

3. Understanding users and permissions

Linux is based on the idea that everyone using a system has their own username and password.

Every file belongs to a user and a group, and has a set of given attributes (read, write and executable) for users, groups and all (everybody).

A file or folder can have permissions that only allows the user it belongs to to read and write to it, allowing the group it belongs to to read it and at the same time all other users can't even read the file.

4. Who and what is root

Linux has one special user called root (this is the user name). Root is the "system administrator" and has access to all files and folders. This special user has the right to do anything.

You should never log on as this user unless you actually need to do something that requires it!

Use su - to temporary become root and do the things you need, again: never log into your sytem as root!

Root is only for system maintenance, this is not a regular user (LindowsOS don't have any user management at all and uses root for everything, this is a very bad idea!).

You can execute a command as root with:

su -c 'command done as root'

Gentoo Linux: Note that on Gentoo Linux only users that are member of the wheel group are allowed to su to root.

5. Opening a command shell / terminal

To learn Linux, you need to learn the shell command line in a terminal emulator.

In KDE: K -> System -> Konsoll to get a command shell)

Pressing CTRL-ALT-F1 to CTRL-ALT-F6 gives you the console command shell windows, while CTRL-ALT-F7 gives you XFree86 (the graphical interface).

xterm (manual page) is the standard XFree console installed on all boxes, run it with xterm (press ALT F2 in KDE and Gnome to run commands).

Terminals you probably have installed:

xterm http://dickey.his.com/xterm/

konsole (KDEs terminal)

gnome-terminal (Gnomes terminal)

Non-standard terminals should install:

rxvt http://www.rxvt.org/

aterm http://aterm.sourceforge.net

6. Your first Linux commands

Now you should have managed to open a terminal shell and are ready to try your first Linux commands. Simply ask the computer to do the tasks you want it to using it's language and press the enter key (the big one with an arrow). You can add a & after the command to make it run in the background (your terminal will be available while the job is done). It can be practical to do things like moving big divx movies as a background process: cp movie.avi /pub &. Jobs - the basics of job control

6.1. ls - short for list

ls lists the files in the current working folder. This is probably the first command to try out. It as a number of options described on the ls manpage.

Examples:

ls

ls -al --color=yes

6.2. pwd - print name of current/working directory

pwd prints the fully resolved name of the current (working) directory. pwd manpage.

6.3. cd - Change directory

cd stands for change (working) directory and that's what it does. The folder below you (unless you are in /, where there is no lower directory) is called "..".

To go one folder down:

cd ..

Change into the folder Documents in your current working directory:

cd Documents

Change into a folder somewhere else:

cd /pub/video

The / in front of pub means that the folder pub is located in the / (lowest folder).

7. The basic commands

7.1. chmod - Make a file executable

To make a file executable and runnable by any user:

chmod a+x myfile

Refer to the chmod manual page for more information.

7.2. df - view filesystem disk space usage

df -h

Filesystem Size Used Avail Use% Mounted on

/dev/hda3 73G 67G 2.2G 97% /

tmpfs 2.0M 24K 2.0M 2% /mnt/.init.d

tmpfs 252M 0 252M 0% /dev/shm

The flags: -h, --human-readable Appends a size letter such as M for megabytes to each size.

df manpage

7.3. du - View the space used by files and folders

Use du (Disk Usage) to view how much space files and folders occupy. Read the du manual page for flags and usage.

du is a part of fileutils.

Example du usage:

du -sh Documents/

409M Documents

7.4. mkdir - makes folders

Folders are created with the command mkdir:

mkdir folder

To make a long path, use mkdir -p :

mkdir -p /use/one/command/to/make/a/long/path/

Like most programs mkdir supports -v (verbose). Practical when used in scripts.

You can make multiple folders in bash and other shells with {folder1,folder2} :

mkdir /usr/local/src/bash/{old,new,dist,bugs}

mkdir manual page

The command rmdir removes folders.

7.5. passwd - changes your login password

To change your password in Linux, type:

passwd

The root user can change the password of any user by running passwd with the user name as argument:

passwd jonny

will change jonnys password. Running passwd without arguments as root changes the root password.

If you need to add several new users and give them password you can use a handy program like Another Password Generator to generate a large set of "random" passwords.

7.5.1. KDE

From KDE you can change your password by going:

K -> Settings -> Change Password

K -> Settings -> Control Center -> System Administration -> User Account

7.6. rm - delete files and folders, short for remove

Files are deleted with the command rm:

rm /home/you/youfile.txt

To delete folders, use rm together with -f (Do not prompt for confirmation) and -r (Recursively remove directory trees):

rm -rf /home/you/foo/

Like most programs rm supports -v (verbose).

rm manual page

7.7. ln - make symbolic links

A symbolic link is a "file" pointing to another file.

To make a symbolic link :

ln /original/file /new/link

This makes /original/file and /new/link the same file - edit one and the other will change. The file will not be gone until both /original/file and /new/link are deleted.

You can only do this with files. For folders, you must make a "soft" link.

To make a soft symbolic link :

ln -s /original/file /new/link

Example:

ln -s /usr/src/linux-2.4.20 /usr/src/linux

Note that -s makes an "empty" file pointing to the original file/folder. So if you delete the folder a symlink points to, you will be stuck with a dead symlink (just rm it).

ln manual page

7.8. tar archiving utility - tar.bz2 and tar.gz

tar (manual page) is a very handle little program to store files and folders in archives, originally made for tapestreamer backups. Tar is usually used together with gzip (manual page) or bzip2 (manual page), comprepssion programs that make your .tar archive a much smaller .tar.gz or .tar.bz2 archive.

kde

You can use the program ark (K -> Utilities -> Ark) to handle archives in KDE. Konqueror treats file archives like normal folders, simply click on the archive to open it. The archive becomes a virtual folder that can be used to open, add or remove files just as if you were working with a normal folder.

7.8.1. tar files (.tar.gz)

To untar files:

tar xvzf file.tar.gz

To tar files:

tar cvzf file.tar.gz filedir1 filedir2 filedir2...

Note: A .tgz file is the same as a .tar.gz file. Both are also often refered to as tarballs.

The flags: z is for gzip, v is for verbose, c is for create, x is for extract, f is for file (default is to use a tape device).

7.8.2. bzip2 files (.tar.bz2)

To unpack files:

tar xjvf file.tar.bz2

To pack files:

tar cvjf file.tar.bz2 filedir1 filedir2 filedir2...

The flags: Same as above, but with j for for bzip2

You can also use bunzip2 file.tar.bz2 , will turn it into a tar.

For older versions of tar, try tar -xjvf or -xYvf or -xkvf to unpack.There's a few other options it could be, they couldn't decide which switch to use for bzip2 for a while.

How to untar an entire directory full or archives?

.tar:

for i in `ls *.tar`; do tar xvf $i; done

.tar.gz: for i in `ls *.tar.gz`; do tar xvfz $i; done

.tar.bz2: for i in `ls *.tar.bz2`; do tar xvfj $i; done

2. Understanding files and folders

2010-08-17T00:45:00.000-07:00

Linux is made with one thought in mind: Everything is a file.

A blank piece of paper is called a file in the world of computers. You can use this piece of paper to write a text or make a drawing. Your text or drawing is called information. A computer file is another way of storing your information.

If you make many drawings then you will eventually want to sort them in different piles or make some other system that allows you to easily locate a given drawing. Computers use folders to sort your files in a hieratic system.

A file is an element of data storage in a file system (file systems manual page). Files are usually stored on harddrives, cdroms and other media, but may also be information stored in RAM or links to devices.

To organize our files into a system we use folders. The lowest possible folder is root / where you will find the user homes called /home/.

/

/home/

/home/mom/

/home/dad/

Behind every configurable option there is a simple human-readable text file you can hand-edit to suit your needs. These days most programs come with nice GUI (graphical user interface) like Mandrakes Control Center and Suses YAST that can smoothly guide you through most configuration. Those who choose can gain full control of their system by manually adjusting the configuration files from foo=yes to foo=no in an editor.

Almost everything you do on a computer involves one or more files stored locally or on a network.

Your filesystems lowest folder root / contains the following folders:

/bin Essential user command binaries (for use by all users)

/boot Static files of the boot loader, only used at system startup

/dev Device files, links to your hardware devices like /dev/sound, /dev/input/js0 (joystick)

/etc Host-specific system configuration

/home User home directories. This is where you save your personal files

/lib Essential shared libraries and kernel modules

/mnt Mount point for a temporarily mounted filesystem like /mnt/cdrom

/opt Add-on application software packages

/usr /usr is the second major section of the filesystem. /usr is shareable, read-only data. That means that /usr should be shareable between various FHS-compliant hosts and must not be written to. Any information that is host-specific or varies with time is stored elsewhere.

/var /var contains variable data files. This includes spool directories and files, administrative and logging data, and transient and temporary files.

/proc System information stored in memory mirrored as files.

The only folder a normal user needs to use is /home/you/ - this is where you will be keeping all your documents.

/home/elvis/Documents

/home/elvis/Music

/home/elvis/Music/60s

2010-08-17T00:42:00.000-07:00

linux desktop

1. What is Linux?

2010-08-17T00:41:00.000-07:00

Linux is a free Unix-type operating system for computer devices. The operating system is what makes the hardware work together with the software. The OS is the interface that allows you to do the things you want with your computer. Linux is freely available to everyone. OS X and Windows are other widely used OS.

Linux gives you a graphical interface that makes it easy to use your computer, yet it still allows those with know-how to change settings by adjusting 0 to 1.

It is only the kernel that is named Linux, the rest of the OS are GNU tools. A package with the kernel and the needed tools make up a Linux distribution. Mandrake , SUSE Linux, Gentoo and Redhat are some of the many variants. GNU/Linux OS can be used on a large number of boxes, including i386+ , Alpha, PowerPC and Sparc.

WINDOWS 2000 practical

2010-08-10T01:27:00.000-07:00

WINDOWS 2000
https://mail.google.com/mail/?ui=1&view=att&th=12a5b12a3a519ae0&attid=0.1&disp=vah&realattid=f_gcnrbld8

2010-08-10T01:01:00.000-07:00

Client/server computing
Client/Server definitions
Client/Server logical layering
Client/Server physical layering
The J2EE Platform
The J2EE APIs
The J2EE architecture
The J2EE application development
The J2EE application server
http://www.gogis.nl/en/tutorial/docs/J2EE/body.html

2010-08-10T00:45:00.000-07:00

Client/Server logical layering

To understand client/server computing it is important to understand that software can be divided in logical layers. All logical layers together form the application. Each layer in the software is responsible for a specific task in the application. The logical layering of an application does not need to be the same as the physical layering of an application ( see for the physical layering the next paragraph).

In theory we distinguish 6 layers in sofware, as shown in figure below. The layering as shown here is a reference model: in practise the layering will not be so clear as shown here.

Figure 2: Software layering

Presentation manager

A presentation manager displays the user interface. The presentation manager is responsible for the look and feel of an application: it defines how something is displayed to the user. It is also responsible for the infrastructure of user interface elements that are possible in an application. The user interface elements are not limited to text and controls , but also include things as grafics, sound, animation and movies. A presentation manager is not application dependent. All applications can use the same presentation manager.

In some operating systems there is a clean distinction between a presentation manager and the operating system itself (e.g. Linux/Unix with X-Windows) and a user can choose which presentation manager (s)he will use for the application (this choice is of course limited by the required user interface elements). Other operating systems only offer one presentation manager which is integrated with the operating system (e.g. Microsoft Windows).

Presentation logic

The presentation logic layer is responsible for what is displayed to the user. It defines which screens are displayed, when they are displayed, which navigation paths exist between screens, which fields to display etc.. The presentation logic layer is application dependent.

Application logic

The application logic layer contains the actual application logic. This is the layer where the application functionality is defined. The application logic layer is application dependent.

In praktice, this layer is the least recognizable of all layers. This layer is typically spread over all other layers whith most of its logic ending up in the presentation logic layer.

Business logic

The business logic layer contains the business rules of an organization. All the business rules should be shared between all the applications of the organization. This will ensure that changes in business rules will propagate through all the organization's applications. This layer is not application dependent but organization dependent.

Database logic

The database logic layer contains the data dictionary of the application (or even organization). It describes the tables, their columns, datatypes, primary and secondary keys. This layer is application (or even organization) dependent.

Database manager

This layer is responsible for the actual storage of data. This layer can be application/organization dependent but most of the time it is not. Most of the time the database manager is a commercial off-the-shelve application, which is able to manage many applications. For very simple applications the database manager and the operating file system are the same (persistence).

In practice, the database logic layer and the database manager layer are almost always one layer. Most database managers generate the physical storage facilities of the data on the basis of a database logic written in SQL. Whenever we speak of "database" in this tutorial we mean the integrated database logic / database manager layer.

Client/server computing & Client/Server definitions

2010-08-10T00:41:00.000-07:00

Client/server computing

The J2EE platform is an implementation of the concept of client/server computing. So before we go into detail about the J2EE platform first an introduction to client/server computing in general.

There are many ways to create advanced distributed applications. This tutorial is about one such technology: the J2EE Platform. Other technologies that can do the same, like CORBA, DCOM or .NET, are beyond the scope of this tutorial.

Client/Server definitions

Client/server computing is an area in which there are as many definitions of terms as there are people working in that area. This tutorial also has its own definitions. In discussing client/server computing we have the following starting-points:

Client/server is a distributed software architecture in which systems are divided into autonomous processes [TODO: we need a distinction between a business process and an OS process], where a client sends requests to a server and that server sends responses as an answer to the request to that client.

Client/server is a concept that will distribute the autonomous processes over clients and servers, based on the suitability for the task of those clients and servers.

Figure 1: Client/Server roles

As can be seen clearly from the figure above, it is possible that a server can be the client of another server. In general there is no clear distinction between clients and server besides a concrete request. In a large distributed system almost every client is a server and every server is also a client.

International Features of Windows 2000

2010-08-03T01:48:00.000-07:00

http://www.ficorp.com/intl_2000.html

Windows 2000 Server Features

2010-08-03T01:42:00.000-07:00

Windows 2000 Server Features
Internet Information Services 5.0 (IIS)Integrated Web services enable users to easily host and manage Web sites to share information, create Web-based business applications, and extend file, print, media and communication services to the Web.
Active Server Pages (ASP) Programming EnvironmentActive Server Pages is consistently rated the easiest, highest performance web server-scripting environment available.
XML ParserCreate applications that enable the Web server to exchange XML-formatted data with both Microsoft Internet Explorer and any server capable of parsing XML.
Windows DNA 2000With the Windows Distributed interNet Applications Architecture (Windows DNA 2000) - the application development model for the Windows platform - you can build secure, reliable, highly scalable solutions that ease the integration of heterogeneous systems and applications.
Component Object Model + (COM+)COM+ builds on COM's integrated services and features, making it easier for developers to create and use software components in any language, using any tool. COM+ includes Transaction Services and Message Queuing Services for reliable distributed applications.
Multimedia PlatformWith integrated Windows MediaTM Services, configure and manage high-quality digital media content across the Internet and intranets--delivering live and on-demand content to the maximum number of users.
Directory-Enabled ApplicationsDevelopers can use a number of standard interfaces to write applications that utilize information stored in the Active DirectoryTM service about users, other application and devices. This enables rich, dynamic applications that are simpler to develop and easier to manage. All Active Directory functions are available through LDAP, ADSI and MAPI for extending and integrating with other applications, directories, and devices.
Web FoldersWeb Folders bring the richness of Windows to the Web, by using Web Document Authoring and Versioning (WebDAV) to enable drag and drop Web publishing.
Internet PrintingSend print jobs across the Internet to a URL.
8-way Symmetric Multi-Processor SupportScale up by utilizing the latest 8-way SMP servers for more processing power. Windows 2000 Server delivers support for up to 4-way SMP servers.
8 GB Memory Support (advanced)Take advantage of larger amounts of memory to improve performance and handle the most demanding applications, with support for up to 8 gigabytes (GB) of RAM with Intel's Physical Address Extension (PAE). Windows 2000 Server delivers support for up to 4 GB of RAM.Network Load Balancing (advanced)Scale out quickly and easily by distributing incoming IP traffic across a farm of load-balanced servers. Incrementally expand capacity by adding additional servers to the farm using Network Load Balancing (NLB).
Terminal ServicesRun Windows-based applications on the server, and access from a remote PC, Windows-based Terminal or non-Windows device over LANs, WANs or low-bandwidth connections, through terminal emulation software. In Windows 2000, Terminal Services are up to 20 percent more scalable and have dramatically improved performance for both high and low-bandwidth connections.
Enhanced ASP PerformanceMore scalable Active Server Page (ASP) processing, improved ASP flow control, and ASP Fast Path for scriptless ASP files enable faster Web page processing.
Multi site HostingInternet Information Services (IIS) 5.0 allows you to host more Web sites per server with high performance.
IIS CPU ThrottlingLimit the amount of CPU time a Web application or site can use to ensure that processor time--and therefore better performance--is available to other Web sites or to non-Web applications.
High throughput and bandwidth utilizationWith support for up to 1 GB networks, Windows 2000 Server delivers high performance processing on high performance networks. Increased throughput increases performance without having too increase network bandwidth.
Support for the Latest Security StandardsBuild secure intranet, extranet and Internet sites using the latest standards, including: 56-bit and 128-bit SSL/TLS, IPSec, Server Gated Cryptography; Digest Authentication, Kerberos v5 authentication, and Fortezza.
Active Directory IntegrationActive Directory integration with the underlying security infrastructure provides a focal point of security management of users, computers and devices making Windows 2000 easier to manage.
Kerberos AuthenticationFull support for Kerberos version 5 protocol provides fast, single sign-on to Windows resources, as well as other environments that support this protocol.
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)The Certificate Server is a critical part of a public key infrastructure that allows customers to issue their own x.509 certificates to their users for PKI functionality such as certificate-based authentication, IPSec, secure email, etc. Integration with Active Directory simplifies user enrollment.
Smart card supportSupports logon via Smart cards "out-of-the-box" for strong authentication to sensitive resources.
Encrypting File SystemIncrease security of data on the hard disk by encrypting it. This data remains encrypted even when backed up or archived.
Secure network communicationsEnd-to-end encrypted communications across your company network using the IPSec standard. Great for protecting sensitive internal communications from intentional or accidental viewing. Active Directory provides central policy control for its use to make it deployable.
Routing and Remote Access ServiceConnects remote workers, telecommuters, and branch offices to the corporate network through dial-up, leased line and Internet links.
Virtual private networking (VPN)A full-featured gateway that encrypts communications to securely connect remote users and satellite offices over the Internet. Now with an updated PPTP support and advanced security with Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol
Kernel-Mode Write ProtectionHelps prevent errant code from interfering with system operations.
Windows File ProtectionPrevents new software installations from replacing essential system files.
Driver CertificationIdentifies device drivers that have passed the Windows Hardware Quality Labs test and warns users if they are about to install an uncertified driver.
IIS Application ProtectionApplication protection keeps Web applications running separately from the Web server itself, preventing an application from crashing the Web server.
Cluster service (advanced)2-node Cluster service supports fail-over, caused by hardware or software failure, of critical applications, including databases, knowledge management, ERP, and file & print services.
Network Load Balancing (advanced)On Web or Terminal Services server farms, re-distribute workload among remaining servers in the event of a server hardware or software failure in less than 10 seconds.
Job Object APIThe Job Object API, with its ability to setup processor affinity, establish time limits, control process priorities, and limit memory utilization for a group of related processes, allows an application to manage and control dependent system resources. This additional level of control means the Job Object API can prevent an application from negatively impacting overall system scalability.
Application Certification & DLL ProtectionApplications certified to run on Windows 2000 Server are tested by Microsoft to ensure high quality and reliability. Protects DLLs installed by applications from conflicts that can cause application failure.
Multi-master ReplicationActive Directory uses multi-master replication to ensure high scalability and availability in distributed network configurations. "Multi-master" means that each directory replica in the network is a peer of all other replicas; changes can be made to any replica and will be reflected across all of them.
Distributed File System (Dfs)Build a single, hierarchical view of multiple file servers and file server shares on a network. Dfs makes files easier for users to locate, and increases availability by maintaining multiple file copies across distributed servers.
Disk QuotasSet quotas on disk space usage per user and per volume to provide increased availability of disk space and help capacity planning efforts.
Hierarchical Storage ManagementAutomatically migrate data that hasn't been recently accessed to less expensive storage media, maximizing disk space for the most heavily accessed data on the disk.
Dynamic system configurationAdd new volumes, extend existing volumes, break or add a mirror, or repair a RAID 5 array, while the server is online, without impacting the end-user.
Rolling Upgrade Support (advanced)Using Cluster service and NLB, avoid downtime caused by planned maintenance or upgrades using rolling upgrades. Migrate your applications or IP workload to one node, upgrading the first node, and then migrating them back. You can roll out hardware, software, and even operating systems upgrades without taking the application offline. Both Windows Clustering technologies are backwards compatible with their Windows NT Server 4.0 predecessors.
Dynamic Volume ManagementAdd new volumes, extend existing volumes, break or add a mirror, or repair a RAID 5 array, while the server is online, without impacting the end-user.
Disk DefragmentationOver time, fragmentation can have a severe impact on the performance of a busy file or Web server. These tools increase disks availability and performance.
Safe Mode BootBooting in Safe Mode allows users to troubleshoot the system during start up by changing the default settings or removing a newly installed driver that is causing a problem.
Backup and RecoveryBackup and recovery features make it easier to backup data and then recover data in the event of a hard disk failure. Windows 2000 allows back up to a single file on a hard disk and tape media.
Automatic RestartConfigure services across the operating system, including IIS, to restart automatically if they fail.
Kill Process TreeStop all processes related to an errant process or application without rebooting the system.
Cluster Administrator (advanced)Run Cluster Administrator from any Windows NT or Windows 2000 system to remotely control multiple clusters from a single location.
Integrated Directory ServicesWindows 2000 introduces Active Directory, a scalable, standard-compliant directory service that makes Windows 2000 easier to manage, more secure, and more interoperable with existing investments. Active Directory centrally manages Windows-based clients, and servers through a single consistent management interface, reducing redundancy and maintenance costs.
Windows Management InstrumentationA uniform model through which management data from any source can be managed in a standard way. Windows Management Instrumentation (WMI) provides this for software, such as applications, while WMI extensions for the Windows Driver Model (WDM) provide this for hardware or hardware device drivers. WMI in Windows 2000 enables management of even more functions.
Delegated AdministrationActive Directory enables administrators to delegate a selected set of administrative privileges to appropriate individuals within the organization to distribute the management and improve accuracy of administration. Delegation also helps companies reduce the number of domains they need to support a large organization with multiple geographical locations.
Microsoft Management ConsoleUnify and simplify system management tasks through a central, customizable console that allows control, monitoring, and administration of widespread network resources. All management functions in Windows 2000 are available through the Microsoft Management Console (MMC).
Remote Management with Terminal ServicesSafely enable Terminal Services for remote administration purposes. Up to two concurrent sessions are supported, with no impact on performance or application compatibility.
Windows Script Host (WSH)Administer the server and automate tasks via the command line instead of graphical user interface tools with scripts.
Group PolicyGroup policy allows central management of collections of users, computers, applications, and network resources instead of managing entities on a one-by-one basis. Integration with Active Directory delivers more granular and flexible control.
Centralized Desktop ManagementManage users' desktop resources by applying policies based on the business needs and location of users. IntelliMirrorTM management technologies install and maintain software, apply correct computer and user settings, and ensure that users' data is always available.
Security Configuration Toolset (SCTS)Reduce costs associated with security configuration and analysis of Windows-based networks. In Windows 2000, use Group Policy to set and periodically update security configurations of computers.
PKI Group Policy ManagementCentrally manage Domain wide-PKI policies. Specify which Certificate Authorities a client will trust, distribute new root certificates, adjust IPSec policy or determine if a user will be required to use smart cards to long onto a particular system.
Windows NT 4.0 Domain migration toolsSimplify the upgrade process to a Windows 2000 domain.
Directory interoperabilityMeta directory technologies enable companies to use Active Directory to manage identity information stored in heterogeneous directory services.
Directory synchronization toolsMaintain and synchronize data between Active Directory and Microsoft Exchange and Novell NDS directories.
High interoperability with client computersSupports Windows NT Workstation, Windows 9x, Windows 3.x, Macintosh, and Unix operating systems. TCP/IP Appleshare support improves resource sharing for the Macintosh operating system.
Applications & Directory interoperabilityWindows 2000 compatible applications will install and upgrade onto the Windows 2000 operating system. Active Directory can interoperate or synchronize date with other directory services using Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP), Meta directory technologies, Microsoft Directory Service Synchronization, or Active Directory Connector. Integration with existing management applications and frameworkd via Windows Management Services.
Server & Mainframe interoperabilityMessage Queuing enables the exchange of information between applications running on mainframe platforms. Kerberos authentication protocol support enables interoperability with other systems using this industry standard authentication protocol. Services for NetWare is an add-on product that increases interoperability with NetWare servers and clients with Windows-based servers and clients. Services for Unix is an add-on product that makes it easier to integrate Windows NT 4.0 and Windows 2000 into a UNIX environment.
Latest server hardware (advanced)Support for the latest advanced 8-way SMP servers running Intel's Profusion chipset and architecture, and up to 8 GB of memory support with Intel's Physical Address Extension (PAE).
NetworkingWindows 2000 Server works with networking devices that support the latest networking technologies, including Plug and Play, DSL, VPN, routing, NAT, DHCP, Quality of Services switches and routers, Directory-Enabled Networking devices, IPSec, SSL, and Asynchronous Transfer Mode.
PeripheralsWindows 2000 Server works with the newest peripherals such as storage management hardware, USB printers, network adapters, keyboards and mice. It delivers advanced printer driver support, as well as support for 1394, PCMCIA, infra-red and digital devices.

IT Vth_SEM SYLLABUS

2010-07-30T08:46:00.000-07:00

IT-301 E RAPID APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT

L T P Class Work: 50

3 1 - Exam: 100

Total: 150

Duration of Exam: 3 Hrs.

Unit-1: Visual Programming Environment: Concept of procedure and event oriented languages,

Integrated Development Environment for VC++ and Visual Basic, Components of Visual C++ and Visual

Basic.

Unit-2: Parts of Visual C++ Program: Application object, main window object, view object, document

object, Document-View architecture and its advantages, dEvent oriented windows Programming, device

context, Microsoft Foundation Classes- an Overview, Simple MFC application, API’s .

Unit-3: Reading keystrokes, handling mouse, creating menus, toolbars, buttons, status bar prompts,

dialog box, check box, radio buttons, list boxes, combo boxes, sliders, multiple documents.

Unit-4: Serialization, file handling, debugging.

Unit-5: DLL’s, OLE Object Technologies, Creating Internet Programs using Visual C++ and Visual

Basic, Creating Active X Controls, connecting to Database (using DAO/ ADO/ RDO) using Visual Basic

and Visual C++.

Text Books

1. Microsoft Visual C++ By Steven Holzner (Pub: BPB)

2. Visual C++ Programming, 2nd edition by Steven Holzner(Pub: PHI)

3. Using Visual Basic for Applications By Paul Sanna(Pub: PHI)

4. Visual Basic Programming By Steven Holzner

5. MSDN Help

Reference Books

1. Visual C++: From the ground Up By Mucller (Pub :TMH)

2. Programming Visual C++ by David J. Kruglinski

IT-303 E Systems Programming &System Administration

L T P Class Work: 50

3 1 - Exam: 100

Total: 150

Duration of Exam: 3 Hrs.

Unit-1: Evolution of Components Systems Programming, Assemblers, Loaders, Linkers, Macros,

Compilers. software tools, Text editors, Interpreters and program generators, Debug Monitors,

Programming environment.

Unit-2: Compiler: Brief overview of compilation process, Incremental compiler, Assembler: Problem

statement, single phase and two phase assembler, symbol table; Loader schemes, compile and go Loader,

general loader schemes, absolute loader, Subroutine linkage, Reallocating loader, Direct linkage Loader,

Binders, Linking loader, overlays.

Unit-3: M acro language and macro-processor, macro instructions, features of macro facility, macro

instruction arguments, conditional macro expansion, macro calls with macro instruction defining macros.

Unit-4: Theoretical Concept of Unix Operating System: Basic features of operating system;

File structure: CPU scheduling; Memory management: swapping, demand paging; file system: block

and fragments, inodes, directory structure; User to user communication.

Unit-5: Getting Started with Unix: User names and groups, logging in; Format of Unix

commands; Changing your password; Characters with special meaning; Unix documentation; Files

and directories; Current directory, looking at the directory contents, absolute and relative pathnames,

some Unix directories and files; Looking at the file contents; File permissions; basic operation on

files; changing permission modes; Standard files, standard output; Standard input, standard error;

filters and pipelines; Processes; finding out about processes; Stopping background process; Unix

editor vi.

Unit-6: Test Manipulation: Inspecting files; File statistics; Searching for patterns; Comparing

files; Operating on files; Printing files; Rearranging files; Sorting files; Splitting files; Translating

characters; AWK utility.

Unit-7: Shell Programming: Programming in the Borne and C-Shell; Wild cards; Simple shell

programs; Shell variables; Shell programming constructs; interactive shell scripts; Advanced

features.

Unit-8: System Administration: Definition of system administration; Booting the system; Maintaining

user accounts; File systems and special files; Backups and restoration; Role and functions of a system

manager.

Overview of the linux. operating system

Text Books:

1. Systems Programming by Donovan, TMH.

2. The unix programming environment by Brain Kernighen & Rob Pike, 1984, PHI & Rob Pike.

3. Design of the Unix operating system by Maurich Bach, 1986, PHI.

4. Introduction to UNIX and LINUX by John Muster, 2003, TMH.

Reference Book:

1. Advanced Unix programmer’s Guide by Stephen Prato, BPB

2. Unix- Concept and applications by Sumitabha Das, 2002, T.M..H

Note: Eight questions will be set in all by the examiners taking at least one question from each unit.

Students will be required to attempt five questions in all.

IT-305 E COMPUTER NETWORKS

L T P Class Work: 50

3 1 - Exam: 100

Total: 150

Duration of Exam: 3 Hrs.

Unit-1: OSI Reference Model and Network Architecture: Introduction to Computer Networks,

Example networks ARPANET, Internet, Private Networks, Network Topologies: Bus-, Star-, Ring-,

Hybrid -, Tree -, Complete -, Irregular –Topology; Types of Networks : Local Area Networks,

Metropolitan Area Networks, Wide Area Networks; Layering architecture of networks, OSI model,

Functions of each layer, Services and Protocols of each layer

Unit–2: TCP/IP: Introduction, History of TCP/IP, Layers of TCP/IP, Protocols, Internet Protocol,

Transmission Control Protocol , User Datagram Protocol, IP Addressing, IP address classes, Subnet

Addressing, Internet Control Protocols, ARP, RARP, ICMP, Application Layer, Domain Name System,

Email – SMTP, POP,IMAP; FTP, NNTP, HTTP, Overview of IP version 6.

Unit-3: Local Area Networks: Introduction to LANs, Features of LANs, Components of LANs, Usage

of LANs, LAN Standards, IEEE 802 standards, Channel Access Methods, Aloha, CSMA, CSMA/CD,

Token Passing, Ethernet, Layer 2 & 3 switching, Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet, Token Ring, LAN

interconnecting devices: Hubs, Switches, Bridges, Routers, Gateways.

Unit–4: Wide Area Networks: Introduction of WANs, Routing, Congestion Control, WAN

Technologies, Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB), Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)/

Synchronous Optical Network (SONET), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), Frame Relay.,Wireless

Links.

Unit-5: Introduction to Network Management: Remote Monitoring Techniques: Polling, Traps,

Performance Management, Class of Service, Quality of Service, Security management, Firewalls,

VLANs, Proxy Servers, Introduction to Network Operating Systems: Client-Server infrastructure,

Windows NT/2000.

Text Book:

1. Computer Networks (3rd edition), Tanenbaum Andrew S., International edition, 1996.

Reference Books:

1. Data Communications, Computer Networks and Open Systems (4th edition), Halsall Fred,

2. 2000, Addison Wesley, Low Price Edition.

3. Business Data Communications, Fitzgerald Jerry,.

4. Computer Networks – A System Approach, Larry L. Peterson & Bruce S. Davie, 2nd Edition

5. Computer Networking – ED Tittel , 2002, T.M.H.

Note: Eight questions will be set in all by the examiners taking at least one question from each unit.

Students will be required to attempt five questions in all.

CSE-301 E PRINCIPLES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

L T P Class Work: 50

3 1 - Exam: 100

Total: 150

Duration of Exam: 3 Hrs.

Unit-1: Introduction: Introduction to Operating System Concepts (including Multitasking,

multiprogramming, multi user, Multithreading etc)., Types of Operating Systems: Batch operating

system, Time-sharing systems, Distributed OS, Network OS, Real Time OS; Various Operating system

services, architecture, System programs and calls.

Unit–2: Process Management: Process concept, process scheduling, operation on processes; CPU

scheduling, scheduling criteria, scheduling algorithms -First Come First Serve (FCFS), Shortest-Job-First

(SJF), Priority Scheduling, Round Robin(RR), Multilevel Queue Scheduling.

Unit–3: Memory Management: Logical & Physical Address Space, swapping, contiguous memory

allocation, non-contiguous memory allocation paging and segmentation techniques, segmentation with

paging; virtual memory management - Demand Paging & Page-Replacement Algorithms; Demand

Segmentation.

Unit–4: File System: Different types of files and their access methods, directory structures, various

allocation methods, disk scheduling and management and its associated algorithms, Introduction to

distributed file system.

Unit–5: Process-Synchronization & Deadlocks: Critical Section Problems, semaphores; methods for

handling deadlocks-deadlock prevention, avoidance & detection; deadlock recovery.

Unit-6: I/O Systems: I/O Hardware, Application I/O Interface, Kernel, Transforming I/O requests,

Performance Issues.

Unit–7: Unix System And Windows NT Overview

Unix system call for processes and file system management, Shell interpreter, Windows NT architecture

overview, Windows NT file system.

Text Books:

1. Operating System Concepts by Silberchatz et al, 5th edition, 1998, Addison-Wesley.

2. Modern Operating Systems by A. Tanenbaum, 1992, Prentice-Hall.

3. Operating Systems Internals and Design Principles by William Stallings,4th edition, 2001,

Prentice-Hall

Reference Books:

1. Operating System By Peterson , 1985, AW.

2. Operating System By Milankovic, 1990, TMH.

3. Operating System Incorporating With Unix & Windows By Colin Ritche, 1974, TMH.

4. Operating Systems by Mandrik & Donovan, TMH

5. Operating Systems By Deitel, 1990, AWL.

6. Operating Systems – Advanced Concepts By Mukesh Singhal , N.G. Shivaratri, 2003, T.M.H

Note: Eight questions will be set in all by the examiners taking at least one question from each unit.

Students will be required to attempt five questions in all.

EE-309-E MICROPROCESSORS AND INTERFACING

L T P CLASS WORK :

3 1 0 EXAM : 100

TOTAL :

150

DURATION OF EXAM :

3 HRS

PART A

UNIT1. THE 8085 PROCESSOR :

Introduction to microprocessor, 8085 microprocessor: Architecture, instruction set, interrupt structure,

and assembly language programming.

UNIT2. THE 8086 MICROPROCESSOR ARCHITECTURE:

Architecture, block diagram of 8086, details of sub-blocks such as EU, BIU; memory segmentation and

physical address computations, program relocation, addressing modes, instruction formats, pin diagram

and description of various signals.

UNIT3. INSTRUCTION SET OF 8086:

Instruction execution timing, assembler instruction format, data transfer instructions, arithmetic

instructions, branch instructions, looping instructions, NOP and HLT instructions, flag manipulation

instructions, logical instructions, shift and rotate instructions, directives and operators, programming

examples.

PART B

UNIT4. INTERFACING DEVICE :

The 8255 PPI chip: Architecture, control words, modes and examples.

UNIT 5. DMA :

Introduction to DMA process, 8237 DMA controller,

UNIT6. INTERRUPT AND TIMER :

8259 Programmable interrupt controller, Programmable interval timer chips.

TEXT BOOKS :

1. Microprocessor Architecture, Programming & Applications with 8085 : Ramesh S Gaonkar;

Wiley Eastern Ltd.

2. The Intel Microprocessors 8086- Pentium processor : Brey; PHI

REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. Microprocessors and interfacing : Hall; TMH

2. The 8088 & 8086 Microprocessors-Programming, interfacing,Hardware & Applications :Triebel

& Singh; PHI

3. Microcomputer systems: the 8086/8088 Family: architecture, Programming & Design : Yu-

Chang Liu & Glenn A Gibson; PHI.

4. Advanced Microprocessors and Interfacing : Badri Ram; TMH

NOTE: 8 questions are to be set selecting FIVE questions from PART A and THREE questions from

PART- B .Students have to attempt any five questions.

CSE -303 E COMPUTER GRAPHICS

L T P Class Work: 50

3 1 - Exam: 100

Total: 150

Duration of Exam: 3 Hrs.

Unit-1: Introduction to Computer Graphics: What is Computer Graphics, Computer Graphics

Applications, Computer Graphics Hardware and software, Two dimensional Graphics Primitives: Points

and Lines, Line drawing algorithms: DDA, Bresenham’s; Circle drawing algorithms: Using polar

coordinates, Bresenham’s circle drawing, mid point circle drawing algorithm; Filled area algorithms:

Scanline: Polygon filling algorithm, boundary filled algorithm.

Unit-2: Two/Three Dimensional Viewing: The 2-D viewing pipeline, windows, viewports, window to

view port mapping; Clipping: point, clipping line (algorithms):- 4 bit code algorithm, Sutherland-cohen

algorithm, parametric line clipping algorithm (Cyrus Beck).

Polygon clipping algorithm: Sutherland-Hodgeman polygon clipping algorithm. Two dimensional

transformations: transformations, translation, scaling, rotation, reflection, composite transformation.

Three dimensional transformations: Three dimensional graphics concept, Matrix representation of 3-D

Transformations, Composition of 3-D transformation.

Unit-3: Viewing in 3D: Projections, types of projections, the mathematics of planner geometric

projections, coordinate systems.

Unit-4: Hidden surface removal: Introduction to hidden surface removal. The Z- buffer algorithm,

scanline algorithm, area sub-division algorithm.

Unit-5: Representing Curves and Surfaces: Parametric representation of curves: Bezier curves, BSpline

curves. Parametric representation of surfaces; Interpolation method.

Unit-6: Illumination, shading, image manipulation: Illumination models, shading models for polygons,

shadows, transparency. What is an image? Filtering, image processing, geometric transformation of

images.

Text Books:

1. Computer Graphics Principles and Practices second edition by James D. Foley, Andeies van

Dam, Stevan K. Feiner and Johb F. Hughes, 2000, Addision Wesley.

2. Computer Graphics by Donald Hearn and M.Pauline Baker, 2nd Edition, 1999, PHI

Reference Books:

1. Procedural Elements for Computer Graphics – David F. Rogers, 2001, T.M.H Second Edition

2. Fundamentals of 3Dimensional Computer Graphics by Alan Watt, 1999, Addision Wesley.

3. Computer Graphics: Secrets and Solutions by Corrign John, BPB

4. Graphics, GUI, Games & Multimedia Projects in C by Pilania & Mahendra, Standard Publ.

5. Computer Graphics Secrets and solutions by Corrign John, 1994, BPV

6. Introduction to Computer Graphics By N. Krishanmurthy T.M.H 2002

Note: Eight questions will be set in all by the examiners taking at least one question from each unit.

Students will be required to attempt five questions in all.

IT-307 E Rapid Application Development Lab.

L T P Class Work: 25

- - 2 Exam: 25

Total: 50

Duration of Exam: 3 Hrs.

Note: At least 10 experiments are to be performed by the students in the semester

1. Study window’s API’s? Find out their relationship with MFC classes. Appreciate how they

are helpful in finding complexities of window’s programming?

2. Get familiar with the essential classes in a typical (document view architecture) VC program

and their relationships with each other.

3. Write a program to handle the mouse event right click on client area and display a message

box as “Right Button Click”.

4. Create a simple model dialog box to read the information about a student i.e. name, roll no.

class using appropriate fields.

5. Write a simple console application to create archive class object from file class that reads

and stores a simple structure (record).

6. Create a simple database in MS access and connect it to Visual Basic using ADO or DAO.

7. Write a program that reads a text and changes its font, font size as selected by the user from

different fonts contained in a list box.

8. With the help of Visual Basic, created an object of excel application and implement any

function of it.

9. Write a simple program that displays an appropriate message when an illegal operation is

performed, using error handling technique in VB.

10. Make an active X control of your own using Visual Basic.

CSE-309 E Computer Graphics Lab.

L T P Class Work: 50

- - 3 Exam: 50

Total: 100

Duration of Exam: 3 Hrs.

List of programs to be developed

1. Write a program for 2D line drawing as Raster Graphics Display.

2. Write a program for circle drawing as Raster Graphics Display.

3. Write a program for polygon filling as Raster Graphics Display

4. Write a program for line clipping.

5. Write a program for polygon clipping.

6. Write a program for displaying 3D objects as 2D display using perspective transformation.

7. Write a program for rotation of a 3D object about arbitrary axis.

8. Write a program for Hidden surface removal from a 3D object.

Note: At least 5 to 10 more exercises to be given by the teacher concerned.

CSE-313 E Operating Systems Lab.

L T P Class Work: 25

- - 2 Exam: 25

Total: 50

Duration of Exam: 3 Hrs.

􀁸 Study of WINDOWS 2000 Operating System.

􀁸 Administration of WINDOWS 2000 (including DNS,LDAP, Directory Services)

􀁸 Study of LINUX Operating System (Linux kernel, shell, basic commands pipe & filter

commands).

􀁸 Administration of LINUX Operating System.

􀁸 Writing of Shell Scripts (Shell programming).

􀁸 AWK programming.

Note: At least 5 to 10 more exercises to be given by the teacher concerned.

EE-329-E MICROPROCESSORS AND INTERFACING LAB

L T P CLASS WORK : 25

0 0 2 EXAM : 25

TOTAL : 50

DURATION OF EXAM: 3 HRS

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:

1. Study of 8085 Microprocessor kit.

2. Write a program using 8085 and verify for :

a. Addition of two 8-bit numbers.

b. Addition of two 8-bit numbers (with carry).

3. Write a program using 8085 and verify for :

a. 8-bit subtraction (display borrow)

b. 16-bit subtraction (display borrow)

4. Write a program using 8085 for multiplication of two 8- bit numbers by repeated addition

method. Check for minimum number of additions and test for typical data.

5. Write a program using 8085 for multiplication of two 8- bit numbers by bit rotation method and

verify.

6. Write a program using 8085 for division of two 8- bit numbers by repeated subtraction method

and test for typical data.

7. Write a program using 8085 for dividing two 8- bit numbers by bit rotation method and test for

typical data.

8. Study of 8086 microprocessor kit

9. Write a program using 8086 for division of a defined double word (stored in a data segment) by

another double Word division and verify.

10. Write a program using 8086 for finding the square root of a given number and verify.

11. Write a program using 8086 for copying 12 bytes of data from source to destination and verify.

12. Write a program using 8086 and verify for:

a. Finding the largest number from an array.

b. Finding the smallest number from an array.

13. Write a program using 8086 for arranging an array of numbers in descending order and verify.

14. Write a program using 8086 for arranging an array of numbers in ascending order and verify.

15. Write a program for finding square of a number using look-up table and verify. .

16. Write a program to interface a two digit number using seven-segment LEDs. Use 8085/8086

microprocessor and 8255 PPI.

17. Write a program to control the operation of stepper motor using 8085/8086 microprocessor and

8255 PPI.

NOTE: At least ten experiments have to be performed in the semester out of which seven experiments

should be performed from above list. Remaining three experiments may either be performed from the

above list or designed & set by the concerned institution as per the scope of the syllabus of EE-309-C.

IT-302 E Network Programming

L T P Class Work: 50

3 1 - Exam: 100

Total: 150

Duration of Exam: 3 Hrs.

Unit-1: Introduction to networking, TC/IP Protocol architecture, Classful internet addresses, subnets,

super netting, address resolution Protocol (RAP) and RARP, IP datagram format, UDP and TCP/data

grams , ICMP its purpose , FINGER, NET STAT details & IPconfig, Ping, TRACERT, ROUTE.

Unit-2: Socket introduction, elementary TCP sockets, TCP client sever, I/O functions, select& poll

functions, socket options elementary UDP sockets, elementary node and address conversions, echo

service (TCP and UDP).

Unit-3: Algorithm and issues in server software design :iterative connectionless servers, (UDP),

Iterative, connection oriented servers (TCP), single process, concurrent servers multiprotocol servers

(TCP,UDP), multi service servers (TCP,UDP).

Unit-4: Remote procedure call concept (RCP) :RPC models, analogy between RPC of client and server,

remote programs and procedures, their multiple versions and mutual exclusion communication semantics,

RPC retransmits, dynamic port mapping ,authentication.

Unit-5: Network file system concept of data link access, debugging techniques ,Routing sockets,

broadcasting to mobile network.

Text Books:

1. Unix Network programming Vol -2nd edition, W.Richard Stevens

2. Internet working with TCP/IP Vol-1, Doubles e-commer.

3. Internetworking TCP/IP Vol III Doubles E comer, David L.Stevens

Reference Book:

1. Internetworking with TCP/IP, Vol II

Note: Eight questions will be set in all by the examiners taking at least one question from each unit.

Students will be required to attempt five questions in all

my photos

2010-07-15T22:42:00.000-07:00

Nokia All Codes

2010-07-15T22:34:00.000-07:00

Nokia All CodesThis is a featured page

Scroll Down to view Specific Model Numbers!!!!

*** WARNING: Using secret codes may be harmful to your phone and result in disabling or worse. Use these codes at your own discretion, we accept no responsiblility for blocked pones while using these codes!!!
IMEI Number
*#06# Cells Identity Code (IMEI = International Mobile Equipment Identity)
XXXXXX XX XXXXXX X
TAC FAC SNR SP
TAC = Type Approval Code (first 2 digits = country code of the approval-country )
FAC = Final Assembly Code: (01,02 = AEG)
(10,20 Nokia)
(40,41,44 Siemens)
(30 Ericsson)
(50 Bosch)
(51 Sony,Siemens,Ericsson)
(60 Alcatel)
(65 AEG)
(70 Sagem)
(75 Dancall)
(80 Philips)
(85 Panasonic)
SNR = Serial Nr.
SP = Spare (always "0")

Software Version
*#0000# shows the software version
Signal Processing
*3370# - Enchanced full Rate Codec (EFR) activation. It will automatically restart.
#3370# - Enchanced full Rate Codec (EFR) deactivation
*4720# - Half Rate Codec activation. It will automatically restart.
#4720# - Half Rate Codec deactivation
Enchanced Full Rate will give you much better sound quality when you enable it. The new Enhanced Full Rate CODEC adopted by GSM uses the ASELP (AlgebraicCode Excitation Linear Prediction) compression technology. This technology allows for much great voice quality in the same number of bits as the older Full Rate CODEC. The older technology was called LPC-RPE (Linear Prediction Coding with Regular Pulse Excitation). Both operate at 13 kilobits.(but you take up more space on the network, so they can charge you more) - Talk-time is reduced with about 5%

Sim Clock Stopping
*#746025625#
[*#sim0clock#]
Checks if the sim clock can be stopped. Sim clock stop is a kind of stand-by mode which will save battery time. This code doesn't work with software version 4.59.
It will tell you if it can be stopped or not.

Warrenty Menu
*#92702689# takes you to a secret menu with 6 choices:
[*#war0anty#]
1. Displays Serial Number.
2. Displays the Month and Year of Manufacture (0997).
3. Displays (if there) the date where the phone was purchased (MMYY).
4. Displays the date of the last repairment - if found (0000).
5. Makes you capable of transferring user data if you have the gear for it.
6. Shows how long the phone has been used to talk. This counter is not reset by when you "clear timers" like the counters in the call register.

Bypass the SP lock With a Nokia 16xx/21xx/31xx/51xx/81xx
1. Insert SIM card of different provider.
2. Turn on the phone and press the UP VOLUME key for 3 sec.
Then release it and the phone says PIN CODE?
3. Press the "C" key.
4. Then Press * and wait until it disappears and appears again, then press * one more time and 04*PIN*PIN*PIN#

Nokia Speed Trap Detector Urban Legend spread by Nokia Engineers ;^)
The settings for radar speed traps detector. Your Nokia cell phone can be programmed to pick up radar speed traps, when programmed your cell phone picks up the radar and alerts you on the message alert tone. ( Doesn't work with Nokia 7110! )
1. Enter your menu
2. Select settings
3. Select security settings
4. Select closed user group
5. Select on
6. Enter 00000
7. Press ok
8. Clear back to normal, within a few seconds your phone will display a radar sign with five zero's next to it. It is now activated.
Unfortunately only Nokia phones have this function. The Cell Phone info display needs to be de-activated. Settings -> Phone Settings -> Cell Info display. Each time you turn off your phone, or even each time you loose contact with your carrier, you'll have to activate it again... It is done using steps 1 through 5 above, but the number (00000) will be already on the field as a default.

The James Bond Trick

If you short-circuit the left middle and right pins on the bottom of the phone with all connections touching each other, the Nokia software hangs! The profile "Headset" will be activated. Before you do this just activate the "Automatic Answer" in the headset profile and set the ringing volume to "Mute". Now you can use your phone for checking out what people are talking about in a room. Just place it under a table in a room and call it. The phone receives the call without ringing and you can listen to what people are saying! Network Monitor
There is a hidden menu inside your Nokia phone. If you want to activate it, you'll have to re-program some chips inside of your phone.
Check your software version. You can only continue if you have v4.33, v4.73 or v5.24.
Take apart the phone.
De-solder the EEPROM (ATMEL AT 24C64)
Read out the data with an EEPROM programmer and save it to a file (Backup)
If you have v.33 or v4.73, change the address "03B8" from "00" to "FF"
If you have v5.24 then change the address "0378" from "00" to "FF"
Write the new data to the EEPROM and solder it back to the phone
Power on your phone and you should have "Netmonitor" enabled.
The Network Monitor gives you the following information:
Carrier number, MS RX Level in DBM, Received signal quality, MS TX power level, C1 (Path loss criterion, used for cell selection and reselection). The range is -99 to 99, RTL (Radio link timeout), Timeslot, Indication of the transmitter status, Information on the Network parameters, TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity), Cell identification (Cell ID, Number of cells being used), MCC (Mobile country code), MCN (Mobile network code), LAC (Location area code), Ciphering (On/Off), Hopping (On/Off), DTX (On/Off), Discard cell barred information.

Game Hacking with Blizzard

Get the file called the 'BlizzardN-GAGE.SIS' from IRC get in #mediaplace on Efnet (note: Downloading cracked/Hacked games is illegal unless you already own a copy of game)
The Blizzard Nokia N-Gage Installer.
1. Unpack Blizzard.sis file that you get from mIRC
2. Transfer the .sis file to your N-Gage
3. Get the .blz (N-gage ROM) from mIRC
4. copy the file to the root dir of your MMC (16MB MMC)Multimedia Card
5. Use the Blizzard application to unpack the .blz file
6. After unpacking the sonic icon should appeared in the MENU
7. Clicked sonic icon and it should work !

List of compatible games for the 3650,6600 and the N-gage that work:
[3650]
SonicN (v.2.5+)
Puyo Pop (v.2.5+)
[6600]
SonicN
Puyo Pop
Pandemonium
Tomb Raider
Super Monkey Ball
Tony Hawks Pro Skater
[N-Gage]
SonicN
Puyo Pop
Pandemonium
Tomb Raider
Super Monkey Ball
Tony Hawks Pro Skater
GSM Network Services Command Strings
When various network functions are selected via the cellphone's menu using the keypad, the cellphone automatically generates the corresponding GSM network command string and transmits it to the network. These commands can however be manually entered via the keypad.

Each command is prefixed with either one or two * or # characters as follows:
** Register and Activate
* Activate
## De-Register (and Deactivate)
# Deactivate
*# Check Status
© Call button

Once each command has been entered, if it is a network command (as opposed to a local handset command) it must be transmitted to the network by pressing the YES (receiver) key which acts as an enter key - this is represented here with the © character. Always enter numbers in full international format +CountryAreaNumber ( e.g. +447712345678).
Command Description Command String
Security
Change call barring code **03*OldCode*NewCode*NewCode#©
Change call barring code **03*330*OldCode*NewCode*NewCode#©
Change PIN code **04*OldPIN*NewPIN*NewPIN#©
Change PIN2 code **042*OldPIN2*NewPIN2*NewPIN2#©
Unlock PIN code (when PIN is entered wrong 3 times) **05*PUK*NewPIN*NewPIN#©
Unlock PIN2 code (when PIN2 is entered wrong 3 times) **052*PUK2*NewPIN2*NewPIN2#©
Display IMEI *#06#
Call Forwarding (Diversions)
De-register all call diversions ##002#©
Set all configured call diversions to number and activate **004*number#©
De-register all configured call diversions (no answer, not reachable, busy) ##004#©
Unconditionally divert all calls to number and activate **21*number#©
Activate unconditionally divert all calls *21#©
De-register unconditionally divert all calls ##21#©
Deactivate unconditionally divert all calls #21#©
Check status of unconditionally divert all calls *#21#©
Divert on no answer to number and activate **61*number#©
Activate divert on no answer *61#©
De-register divert on no answer ##61#©
Deactivate divert on no answer #61#©
Check status of divert on no answer *#61#©
Divert on not reachable to number and activate **62*number#©
Activate divert on not reachable *62#©
De-register divert on not reachable ##62#©
Deactivate divert on not reachable #62#©
Check status of divert on not reachable *#62#©
Divert on busy to number and activate /td> **67*number#©<
Activate divert on busy *67#©
De-register divert on busy ##67#©
Deactivate divert on busy #67#©
Check status of divert on busy *#67#©
Change number of seconds of ringing for the given service before diverting a call (such as on no answer). Seconds must be a value from 5 to 30. De-registering the same divert will also delete this change! **service*number**seconds#© (Service numbers, see below)
Call barring
Activate barr all outgoing calls (see Security to set code) **33*code#©
Deactivate barr all outgoing calls #33*code#©
Check status of barr all outgoing calls *#33#©
Activate barr all calls **330*code#©
Deactivate barr all calls #330*code#©
Check status of barr all calls /td> *#330*code#©<
Activate barr all outgoing international calls **331*code#©
Deactivate barr all outgoing international calls #331*code#©
Check status of barr all outgoing international calls *#331#©
Activate barr all outgoing international calls except to home country **332*code#©
Deactivate barr all outgoing international calls except to home country #332*code#©
Check status of barr all outgoing international calls except to home country *#332#©
Activate barr all outgoing calls **333*code#©
Deactivate barr all outgoing calls #333*code#©
Check status of barr all outgoing calls *#333#©
Activate barr all incoming calls **35*code#©
Deactivate barr all incoming calls #35*code#©
Check status of barr all incoming calls *#35#©
Activate barr all incoming calls when roaming **351*code#©
Deactivate barr all incoming calls when roaming #351*code#©
Check status of barr all incoming calls when roaming *#351#©
Activate barr all incoming calls **353*code#©
Deactivate barr all incoming calls #353*code#©
Check status of barr all incoming calls *#353#©
Call waiting
Activate call waiting *43*#©
Deactivate call waiting #43##©
Check status of call waiting *#43#©
Calling Line Identification
The following only works if CLIP and CLIR are enabled (ask your service provider)
CLIP: Presentation of the number of the incoming call
Activate CLIP **30#©
Deactivate CLIP ##30#©
Check status of CLIP *#30#©
CLIR: Presentation of one's own number to the to the called party
Activate CLIR **31#©
Activate CLIR for the actual call *31#number©
Deactivate CLIR ##31#©
Deactivate CLIR for the actual call #31#number©
Check status of CLIR *#31#©
COLP: Presentation of the actual number reached (if number called was diverted to another number
Activate COLP *76#©
Deactivate COLP #76#©
Check status of COLP *#76#©
COLR: Presentation of the original number called by the calling party (if the call was diverted to this cellphone)
Activate COLR *77#©
Deactivate COLR #77#©
Check status of COLR *#77#©

Cellphone Services
10 All types of cellphone services
11 Speech service
12 Data service
13 Fax
14 Datex-J
15 Teletex
16 Short message service (SMS)
18 All data services without SMS
19 All cellphone services without SMS

Carrier Services
20 All services
21 All asynchronous services
22 All synchronous services
23 3.1kHz services
24 Synchronous point-to-point connections including PAD's (all synchronous data services)
25 Asynchronous point-to-point connections including PAD's (all asynchronous data services)
26 Data packet sending including PAD's (all synchronous data packet services)
27 Services with PAD-share
29 Digital connection with 12kbps

GSM Network Service Codes
Note that at present only the following service codes are in use:
11 Speech
13 fax
25 data

Cell Broadcast
While Short Message Service (SMS) can be configured as a personal service, Cell Broadcast is a general service which is designed for subscribers of a specific cell or topic. For example, a subscriber to cell 050 in England will receive information on the GSM tower currently being used by their phone. This new concept brings a whole new meaning to the term mobile communications as the phone is now able to receive information such as share prices or weather updates without the need of data cards and computers. At present the following message types exist (note: this may vary from carrier to carrier and some carriers may charge for this service):

Code Title
000 Index
010 Flashes
020 Hospitals
022 Doctors
024 Pharmacy
030 Long Distant Road Reports
032 Local Road Reports
034 Taxis
040 Weather
050 District
052 Network Information
054 Operator Services
056 Directory Inquiries (national)
057 Directory Inquiries (international)
058 Customer Care (national)
059 Customer Care (international)

22>>>

In the future one will be able to control each individual call by use of the following service codes. To do this the user has to insert the service code in front of the last # in the MMI command above.

Or More

Secret Codes for some Nokia models
Nokia 9000/9000i

To view IMEI number *#06#
To view Software Version enter *#8110# Latest Version is under Phone Info.
To view Week and Year of manufacture enter *#3283#

Nokia 9110

*#06# for checking the IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity)
*#0000# shows the SW version.

Latest software version: v5.02 (26-08-99)RAE-2

Nokia 7110

*#06# for checking the IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity)
*#0000# To view Software Version.
*#3370# - Enhanced Full Rate Codec (EFR) activation. It will automatically restart.
*#3370* - Enhanced Full Rate Codec (EFR) deactivation. It will automatically restart.
*#4720# - Half Rate Codec activation. It will automatically restart
*#4720* - Half Rate Codec deactivation. It will automatically restart
*#746025625# - Sim clock allowed status.
*#92702689# [*#war0anty#] - takes you to a secret menu with 6 choices:

1. Displays Serial Number.
2. Displays the Month and Year of Manufacture (0997)
3. Displays (if there) the date where the phone was purchased (MMYY)
4. Displays the date of the last repairment - if found (0000)
5. makes you capebel of transferring user data if you have the gear for it
6. shows how many hours the phone has been on

Latest software version: 4.77 25-01-00 NSE-5 - EFR and half rate codes do not work with these version.

V 4.76 13-01-00 NSE-5
V 4.75 07-01-00 NSE-5
V 4.73 15.11.99 NSE-5

Nokia 6190

*#06# for checking the IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity)
*#6190# shows the SW version.
*#92772689# (after removing the analog module) shows service menu.
*3001#12345[OK] to enter test mode.
*#639# to change NAM.

Nokia 3810

To view IMEI number *#06#
To view Software Version enter *#3810#

Nokia 6120 / 6160 / 6162 (TDMA phones)

*#92772689# for checking ISDN number.
*3001#12345# for field test mode and nam selection and some other stuff...
*#9999# shows the SW version

Nokia 3210 Secret Codes
Nokia 3210

*#06# for checking the IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity) Information you get from the IMEI:

XXXXXX XX XXXXXX X

TAC FAC SNR SP

TAC = Type approval code
FAC = Final assembly code
SNR = Serial number
SP = Spare

*#0000# To view Software Version.

#746025625# [*#sim0clock#]
Checks if the sim clock can be stopped. Sim clock stop is a kind of stand-by mode which will save battery time. This code doesn't work with software version 4.59.

*#92702689# [*#war0anty#] takes you to a secret menu with 6 choices:

1. Displays Serial Number.
2. Displays the Month and Year of Manufacture (0997)
3. Displays (if there) the date where the phone was purchased (MMYY)
4. Displays the date of the last repairment - if found (0000)
5. makes you capebel of transferring user data if you have the gear for it
6. shows how many hours the phone has been on

Latest software version: V 5.02 NSE-8/9

*#3370# - Enhanced Full Rate Codec (EFR) activation. It will automatically restart.
*#3370* - Enhanced Full Rate Codec (EFR) deactivation. It will automatically restart.
*#4720# - Half Rate Codec activation. It will automatically restart
*#4720* - Half Rate Codec deactivation. It will automatically restart

Enhanced Full Rate will give you much better sound quality when you enable it. The new Enhanced Full Rate CODEC adopted by GSM uses the ASELP (Algebraic Code Excitation Linear Prediction) compression technology. This technology allows for much great voice quality in the same number of bits as the older Full Rate CODEC. The older technology was called LPC-RPE (Linear Prediction Coding with Regular Pulse Excitation). Both operate at 13 kilobits.(but you take up more space on the network, so they can charge you more) - Talk-time is reduced by about 5% when using the ERF option.
Rahul Dutt Avasthy

IT-2nd YEAR syllabus

2010-03-30T22:59:00.000-07:00

CSE-202 E Database Management Systems

L T P Class Work: 50
3 1 - Exam: 100
Total: 150
Duration of Exam: 3 Hrs.

Unit–1:Introduction Overview of database Management System; Various views of data, data Models, Introduction to Database Languages. Advantages of DBMS over file processing systems, Responsibility of Database Administrator,

Unit-2: Introduction to Client/Server architecture, Three levels architecture of Database Systems, E-R Diagram (Entity Relationship), mapping Constraints, Keys, Reduction of E-R diagram into tables.

Unit-3: File Organisation: Sequential Files, index sequential files, direct files, Hashing, B-trees Index files.

Unit-4: Relational Model, Relational Algebra & various operations, Relational and Tuple calculus.

Unit-5: Introduction to Query Languages :QLB , QBE, Structured query language – with special reference of (SQL of ORACLE), integrity constraints, functional dependencies & NORMALISATION – (up to 4th Normal forms), BCNF (Boyce – code normal forms)

Unit-6: Introduction to Distributed Data processing, parallel Databases, data mining & data warehousing, network model & hierarchical model, Introduction to Concurrency control and Recovery systems.

Text Books:
Database System Concepts by A. Silberschatz, H.F. Korth and S. Sudarshan, 3rd edition, 1997, McGraw-Hill, International Edition.
Introduction to Database Management system by Bipin Desai, 1991, Galgotia Pub.
Reference Books:
Fundamentals of Database Systems by R. Elmasri and S.B. Navathe, 3rd edition, 2000, Addision-Wesley, Low Priced Edition.

An Introduction to Database Systems by C.J. Date, 7th edition, Addison-Wesley, Low Priced Edition, 2000.
Database Management and Design by G.W. Hansen and J.V. Hansen, 2nd edition, 1999, Prentice-Hall of India, Eastern Economy Edition.
Database Management Systems by A.K. Majumdar and P. Bhattacharyya, 5th edition, 1999, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing.
A Guide to the SQL Standard, Date, C. and Darwen,H. 3rd edition, Reading, MA: 1994, Addison-Wesley.
Data Management & file Structure by Looms, 1989, PHI

Note: Eight questions will be set in all by the examiners taking at least one question from each unit. Students will be required to attempt five questions in all.

CSE-204 E Programming Languages

L T P Class Work: 50
3 1 - Exam: 100
Total: 150
Duration of Exam: 3 Hrs.

Unit-1: Introduction: Syntactic and semantic rules of a Programming language, Characteristics of a good programming language, Programming language translators compiler & interpreters , Elementary data types – data objects, variable & constants, data types, Specification & implementation of elementary data types, Declarations ,type checking & type conversions , Assignment & initialization, Numeric data types, enumerations, Booleans & characters.

Unit-2: Structured data objects : Structured data objects & data types , specification & implementation of structured data types, Declaration & type checking of data structure ,vector & arrays, records Character strings, variable size data structures , Union, pointer & programmer defined data objects, sets, files.

Unit-3 : Subprograms and Programmer Defined Data Types: Evolution of data type concept ,abstraction, encapsulation & information hiding , Subprograms ,type definitions, abstract data types.

Unit–4: Sequence Control: Implicit & explicit sequence control ,sequence control within expressions, sequence control within statement, Subprogram sequence control: simple call return ,recursive subprograms, Exception & exception handlers, co routines, sequence control .

Unit-5: Data Control: Names & referencing environment, static & dynamic scope, block structure, Local data & local referencing environment, Shared data: dynamic & static scope. Parameter & parameter transmission schemes.

Unit-6: Storage Management: Major run time elements requiring storage ,programmer and system controlled storage management & phases , Static storage management , Stack based storage management, Heap storage management ,variable & fixed size elements.

Unit-7: Programming Languages: Introduction to procedural, non-procedural ,structured, functional and object oriented programming language, Comparison of C & C++ programming languages.

Text Book:
Programming languages Design & implementation by T.W. .Pratt, 1996, Prentice Hall Pub.
Programming Languages – Principles and Paradigms by Allen Tucker & Robert Noonan, 2002, TMH,
Reference Books:
Fundamentals of Programming languages by Ellis Horowitz, 1984, Galgotia publications (Springer Verlag),
Programming languages concepts by C. Ghezzi, 1989, Wiley Publications.,
Programming Languages – Principles and Pradigms Allen Tucker , Robert Noonan 2002, T.M.H.

Note: Eight questions will be set in all by the examiners taking at least one question from each unit. Students will be required to attempt five questions in all.

CSE-208 E Internet Fundamentals

L T P Class Work: 50
3 1 - Exam: 100
Total: 150
Duration of Exam: 3 Hrs.

Unit-1: Electronic Mail: Introduction, advantages and disadvantages, Userids, Pass words, e-mail addresses, message components, message composition, mailer features, E-mail inner workings, E-mail management, Mime types, Newsgroups, mailing lists, chat rooms.

Unit-2 : The Internet: Introduction to networks and internet, history, Working of Internet, Internet Congestion, internet culture, business culture on internet. Collaborative computing & the internet. Modes of Connecting to Internet, Internet Service Providers(ISPs), Internet address, standard address, domain name, DNS, IP.v6.Modems and time continuum, communications software; internet tools.

Unit-3 : World Wide Web : Introduction, Miscellaneous Web Browser details, searching the www: Directories search engines and meta search engines, search fundamentals, search strategies, working of the search engines, Telnet and FTP.
Introduction to Browser, Coast-to-coast surfing, hypertext markup language, Web page installation, Web page setup, Basics of HTML & formatting and hyperlink creation.
Using FrontPage Express, Plug-ins.

Unit-4: Languages: Basic and advanced HTML, java script language, Client and Server Side Programming in java script. Forms and data in java script, XML basics.

Unit-5 : Servers : Introduction to Web Servers: PWS, IIS, Apache; Microsoft Personal Web Server. Accessing & using these servers.

Unit-6: Privacy and security topics: Introduction, Software Complexity, Encryption schemes, Secure Web document, Digital Signatures, Firewalls.

Text Book:
Fundamentals of the Internet and the World Wide Web, Raymond Greenlaw and Ellen Hepp – 2001, TMH
Internet & World Wide Programming, Deitel,Deitel & Nieto, 2000, Pearson Education

Reference Books:
Complete idiots guide to java script,. Aron Weiss, QUE, 1997
Network firewalls, Kironjeet syan -New Rider Pub.
www.secinf.com
www.hackers.com
Alfred Glkossbrenner-Internet 101 Computing MGH, 1996
Note: Eight questions will be set in all by the examiners taking at least one question from each unit. Students will be required to attempt five questions in all.

IT-202 E Object Oriented Programming Using C++

L T P Class Work: 50
3 1 - Exam: 100
Total: 150
Duration of Exam: 3 Hrs.

Unit–1: Introduction to C++, C++ Standard Library, Basics of a Typical C++ Environment, Pre-processors Directives, Illustrative Simple C++ Programs. Header Files and Namespaces, library files.
Unit-2: Object Oriented Concepts : Introduction to Objects and Object Oriented Programming, Encapsulation (Information Hiding), Access Modifiers: Controlling access to a class, method, or variable (public, protected, private, package), Other Modifiers, Polymorphism: Overloading,, Inheritance, Overriding Methods, Abstract Classes, Reusability, Class’s Behaviors.
Unit–3: Classes and Data Abstraction: Introduction, Structure Definitions, Accessing Members of Structures, Class Scope and Accessing Class Members, Separating Interface from Implementation, Controlling Access Function And Utility Functions, Initializing Class Objects: Constructors, Using Default Arguments With Constructors, Using Destructors, Classes : Const(Constant) Object And Const Member Functions, Object as Member of Classes, Friend Function and Friend Classes, Using This Pointer, Dynamic Memory Allocation with New and Delete, Static Class Members, Container Classes And Integrators, Proxy Classes, Function overloading.
Unit-4: Operator Overloading: Introduction, Fundamentals of Operator Overloading, Restrictions On Operators Overloading, Operator Functions as Class Members vs. as Friend Functions, Overloading, <<, >> Overloading Unary Operators, Overloading Binary Operators.
Unit-5: Inheritance: Introduction, Inheritance: Base Classes And Derived Classes, Protected Members, Casting Base- Class Pointers to Derived- Class Pointers, Using Member Functions, Overriding Base –Class Members in a Derived Class, Public, Protected and Private Inheritance, Using Constructors and Destructors in derived Classes, Implicit Derived –Class Object To Base- Class Object Conversion, Composition Vs. Inheritance.
Unit–6: Virtual Functions and Polymorphism: Introduction to Virtual Functions, Abstract Base Classes And Concrete Classes, Polymorphism, New Classes And Dynamic Binding, Virtual Destructors, Polymorphism, Dynamic Binding.
Unit-7: Files and I/O Streams: Files and Streams, Creating a Sequential Access File, Reading Data From A Sequential Access File, Updating Sequential Access Files, Random Access Files, Creating A Random Access File, Writing Data Randomly To a Random Access File, Reading Data Sequentially from a Random Access File. Stream Input/Output Classes and Objects, Stream Output, Stream Input, Unformatted I/O (with read and write), Stream Manipulators, Stream Format States, Stream Error States.
Unit-8: Templates & Exception Handling: Function Templates, Overloading Template Functions, Class Template, Class Templates and Non-Type Parameters, Templates and Inheritance, Templates and Friends, Templates and Static Members.
Introduction, Basics of C++ Exception Handling: Try Throw, Catch, Throwing an Exception, Catching an Exception, Rethrowing an Exception, Exception specifications, Processing Unexpected Exceptions, Stack Unwinding, Constructors, Destructors and Exception Handling, Exceptions and Inheritance.

Text Books:
C++ How to Program by H M Deitel and P J Deitel, 1998, Prentice Hall
Object Oriented Programming in Turbo C++ by Robert Lafore ,1994, The WAITE Group Press.
Programming with C++ By D Ravichandran, 2003, T.M.H
Reference books:
Object oriented Programming with C++ by E Balagurusamy, 2001, Tata McGraw-Hill
Computing Concepts with C++ Essentials by Horstmann, 2003, John Wiley,
The Complete Reference in C++ By Herbert Schildt, 2002, TMH.
Note: Eight questions will be set in all by the examiners taking at least one question from each unit. Students will be required to attempt five questions in all.

CSE- 210 E Computer Architecture & Organization

L T P Class Work: 50
3 1 - Exam: 100
Total: 150
Duration of Exam: 3 Hrs.
Unit-1: Basic Principles: Boolean algebra and Logic gates, Combinational logic blocks(Adders, Multiplexers, Encoders, de-coder), Sequential logic blocks(Latches, Flip-Flops, Registers, Counters)
Unit-2: General System Architecture: Store program control concept, Flynn’s classification of computers (SISD, MISD, MIMD); Multilevel viewpoint of a machine: digital logic, micro architecture, ISA, operating systems, high level language; structured organization; CPU, caches, main memory, secondary memory units & I/O; Performance metrics; MIPS, MFLOPS.
Unit-3: Instruction Set Architecture: Instruction set based classification of processors (RISC, CISC, and their comparison); addressing modes: register, immediate, direct, indirect, indexed; Operations in the instruction set; Arithmetic and Logical, Data Transfer, Control Flow; Instruction set formats (fixed, variable, hybrid); Language of the machine: 8086 ; simulation using MSAM.
Unit-4: Basic non pipelined CPU Architecture: CPU Architecture types (accumulator, register, stack, memory/ register) detailed data path of a typical register based CPU, Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle (typically 3 to 5 stage); microinstruction sequencing, implementation of control unit, Enhancing performance with pipelining.
Unit-5: Memory Hierarchy & I/O Techniques: The need for a memory hierarchy (Locality of reference principle, Memory hierarchy in practice: Cache, main memory and secondary memory, Memory parameters: access/ cycle time, cost per bit); Main memory (Semiconductor RAM & ROM organization, memory expansion, Static & dynamic memory types); Cache memory (Associative & direct mapped cache organizations.
Unit-6: Introduction to Parallelism: Goals of parallelism (Exploitation of concurrency, throughput enhancement); Amdahl’s law; Instruction level parallelism (pipelining, super scaling –basic features); Processor level parallelism (Multiprocessor systems overview).

Unit-7: Computer Organization [80x86]: Instruction codes, computer register, computer instructions, timing and control, instruction cycle, type of instructions, memory reference, register reference. I/O reference, Basics of Logic Design, accumulator logic, Control memory, address sequencing, micro-instruction formats, micro-program sequencer, Stack Organization, Instruction Formats, Types of interrupts; Memory Hierarchy.
Text Books:
Computer Organization and Design, 2nd Ed., by David A. Patterson and John L. Hennessy, Morgan 1997, Kauffmann.
Computer Architecture and Organization, 3rd Edi, by John P. Hayes, 1998, TMH.
Reference Books:
Operating Systems Internals and Design Principles by William Stallings,4th edition, 2001, Prentice-Hall Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
Computer Organization, 5th Edi, by Carl Hamacher, Zvonko Vranesic,2002, Safwat Zaky.
Structured Computer Organisation by A.S. Tanenbaum, 4th edition, Prentice-Hall of India, 1999, Eastern Economic Edition.
Computer Organisation & Architecture: Designing for performance by W. Stallings, 4th edition, 1996, Prentice-Hall International edition.
Computer System Architecture by M. Mano, 2001, Prentice-Hall.
Computer Architecture- Nicholas Carter, 2002, T.M.H.
Note: Eight questions will be set in all by the examiners taking at least one question from each unit. Students will be required to attempt five questions in all.
IT-204 E Multimedia Technologies

L T P Class Work: 50
3 1 - Exam: 100
Total: 150
Duration of Exam: 3 Hrs.

Unit-1: Basics of Multimedia Technology: Computers, communication and entertainment; multimedia an introduction; framework for multimedia systems; multimedia devices; CD- Audio, CD-ROM, CD-I, presentation devices and the user interface; multimedia presentation and authoring; professional development tools; LANs and multimedia; internet, World Wide Web & multimedia distribution network-ATM & ADSL; multimedia servers & databases; vector graphics; 3D graphics programs; animation techniques; shading; anti aliasing; morphing; video on demand.

Unit-2: Image Compression & Standards: Making still images; editing and capturing images; scanning images; computer color models; color palettes; vector drawing; 3D drawing and rendering; JPEG-objectives and architecture; JPEG-DCT encoding and quantization, JPEG statistical coding, JPEG predictive lossless coding; JPEG performance; overview of other image file formats as GIF, TIFF, BMP, PNG etc.

Unit-3: Audio & Video: Digital representation of sound; time domain sampled representation; method of encoding the analog signals; subband coding; fourier method; transmission of digital sound; digital audio signal processing; stereophonic & quadraphonic signal processing; editing sampled sound; MPEG Audio; audio compression & decompression; brief survey of speech recognition and generation; audio synthesis; musical instrument digital interface; digital video and image compression; MPEG motion video compression standard; DVI technology; time base media representation and delivery.

Unit-4: Virtual Reality: Applications of multimedia, intelligent multimedia system, desktop virtual reality, VR operating system, virtual environment displays and orientation making; visually coupled system requirements; intelligent VR software systems.
Applications of environment in various fields.

Text Books:
An introduction, Villamil & Molina, Multimedia Mc Milan, 1997
multimedia: Sound & Video, Lozano, 1997, PHI, (Que)

Reference Books:
Multimedia: Production, planning and delivery, Villamil & Molina,Que, 1997
Multimedia on the PC, Sinclair,BPB
Multimedia: Making it work, Tay Vaughan, fifth edition, 1994, TMH.
Multimedia in Action by James E Shuman, 1997, Wadsworth Publ.,
Multimedia in Practice by Jeff coate Judith, 1995,PHI.
Multimedia Systems by Koegel, AWL
Multimedia Making it Work by Vaughar, etl.
Multimedia Systems by John .F. Koegel, 2001, Buford.
Multimedia Communications by Halsall & Fred, 2001,AW.

Note: Eight questions will be set in all by the examiners taking at least one question from each unit. Students will be required to attempt five questions in all.

CSE- 216 E Database Management Systems Lab

L T P Class Work: 25
- - 2 Exam: 25
Total: 50
Duration of Exam: 3 Hrs.

I. Create a database and write the programs to carry out the following operation :

1. Add a record in the database
2. Delete a record in the database
3. Modify the record in the database
4. Generate queries
5. Generate the report
6. List all the records of database in ascending order.

II Develop a menu driven project for management of database system:

1. Library information system
(a) Engineering
(b) MCA

2. Inventory control system
(c) Computer Lab
(d) College Store

3. Student information system
(e) Academic
(f) Finance

4. Time table development system
(g) CSE, IT & MCA Departments
(h) Electrical & Mechanical Departments

Usage of S/w:

1. VB, ORACLE and/or DB2
2. VB, MSACCESS
3. ORACLE, D2K
4. VB, MS SQL SERVER 2000

Note: At least 5 to 10 more exercises to be given by the teacher concerned.

IT-206 E C ++ Programming Lab.

L T P Class Work: 25
- - 2 Exam: 25
Total: 50
Duration of Exam: 3 Hrs.

Q1. Raising a number n to a power p is the same as multiplying n by itself p times. Write a function called power ( ) that takes a double value for n and an int value for p, and returns the result as double value. Use a default argument of 2 for p, so that if this argument is omitted, the number will be squared. Write a main ( ) function that gets values from the user to test this function.
Q2. A point on the two dimensional plane can be represented by two numbers: an X coordinate and a Y coordinate. For example, (4,5) represents a point 4 units to the right of the origin along the X axis and 5 units up the Y axis. The sum of two points can be defined as a new point whose X coordinate is the sum of the X coordinates of the points and whose Y coordinate is the sum of their Y coordinates.
Write a program that uses a structure called point to model a point. Define three points, and have
the user input values to two of them. Than set the third point equal to the sum of the other two,
and display the value of the new point. Interaction with the program might look like this:
Enter coordinates for P1: 3 4
Enter coordinates for P2: 5 7
Coordinates of P1 + P2 are : 8, 11
Q 3. Create the equivalent of a four function calculator. The program should request the user to enter a number, an operator, and another number. It should then carry out the specified arithmetical operation: adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing the two numbers. (It should use a switch statement to select the operation). Finally it should display the result.
When it finishes the calculation, the program should ask if the user wants to do another
calculation. The response can be ‘Y’ or ‘N’. Some sample interaction with the program might
look like this.
Enter first number, operator, second number: 10/ 3
Answer = 3.333333
Do another (Y/ N)? Y
Enter first number, operator, second number 12 + 100
Answer = 112
Do another (Y/ N) ? N
Q4. A phone number, such as (212) 767-8900, can be thought of as having three parts: the area code (212), the exchange (767) and the number (8900). Write a program that uses a structure to store these three parts of a phone number separately. Call the structure phone. Create two structure variables of type phone. Initialize one, and have the user input a number for the other one. Then display both numbers. The interchange might look like this:
Enter your area code, exchange, and number: 415 555 1212
My number is (212) 767-8900
Your number is (415) 555-1212
Q 5. Create two classes DM and DB which store the value of distances. DM stores distances in metres and centimeters and DB in feet and inches. Write a program that can read values for the class objects and add one object of DM with another object of DB.
Use a friend function to carry out the addition operation. The object that stores the results maybe
a DM object or DB object, depending on the units in which the results are required.
The display should be in the format of feet and inches or metres and cenitmetres depending on
the object on display.
Q 6. Create a class rational which represents a numerical value by two double values- NUMERATOR & DENOMINATOR. Include the following public member Functions:
constructor with no arguments (default).
constructor with two arguments.
void reduce( ) that reduces the rational number by eliminating the highest common factor between the numerator and denominator.
Overload + operator to add two rational number.
Overload >> operator to enable input through cin.
Overload << operator to enable output through cout.
Write a main ( ) to test all the functions in the class.

Q 7. Consider the following class definition
class father {
protected : int age;
public;
father (int x) {age = x;}
virtual void iam ( )
{ cout < < “I AM THE FATHER, my age is : ”<< age<< end1:}
};
Derive the two classes son and daughter from the above class and for each, define iam ( ) to write
our similar but appropriate messages. You should also define suitable constructors for these
classes.
Now, write a main ( ) that creates objects of the three classes and then calls iam ( ) for them.
Declare pointer to father. Successively, assign addresses of objects of the two derived classes to
this pointer and in each case, call iam ( ) through the pointer to demonstrate polymorphism in
action.
Q 8. Write a program that creates a binary file by reading the data for the students from the terminal.
The data of each student consist of roll no., name ( a string of 30 or lesser no. of characters) and marks.

Q9. A hospital wants to create a database regarding its indoor patients. The information to store include
a) Name of the patient
b) Date of admission
c) Disease
d) Date of discharge
Create a structure to store the date (year, month and date as its members). Create a base class to
store the above information. The member function should include functions to enter information
and display a list of all the patients in the database. Create a derived class to store the age of the
patients. List the information about all the to store the age of the patients. List the information
about all the pediatric patients (less than twelve years in age).

Q 10. Make a class Employee with a name and salary. Make a class Manager inherit from Employee. Add an instance variable, named department, of type string. Supply a method to toString that prints the manager’s name, department and salary. Make a class Executive inherit from Manager. Supply a method to String that prints the string “Executive” followed by the information stored in the Manager superclass object. Supply a test program that tests these classes and methods.

Q11. Imagine a tollbooth with a class called toll Booth. The two data items are a type unsigned int to hold the total number of cars, and a type double to hold the total amount of money collected. A constructor initializes both these to 0. A member function called payingCar ( ) increments the car total and adds 0.50 to the cash total. Another function, called nopayCar ( ), increments the car total but adds nothing to the cash total. Finally, a member function called displays the two totals.

Include a program to test this class. This program should allow the user to push one key to count
a paying car, and another to count a nonpaying car. Pushing the ESC kay should cause the
program to print out the total cars and total cash and then exit.

Q12. Write a function called reversit ( ) that reverses a string (an array of char). Use a for loop that swaps the first and last characters, then the second and next to last characters and so on. The string should be passed to reversit ( ) as an argument.

Write a program to exercise reversit ( ). The program should get a string from the user, call
reversit ( ), and print out the result. Use an input method that allows embedded blanks. Test the
program with Napoleon’s famous phrase, “Able was I ere I saw Elba)”.

Q13. Create some objects of the string class, and put them in a Deque-some at the head of the Deque and some at the tail. Display the contents of the Deque using the forEach ( ) function and a user written display function. Then search the Deque for a particular string, using the first That ( ) function and display any strings that match. Finally remove all the items from the Deque using the getLeft ( ) function and display each item. Notice the order in which the items are displayed: Using getLeft ( ), those inserted on the left (head) of the Deque are removed in “last in first out” order while those put on the right side are removed in “first in first out” order. The opposite would be true if getRight ( ) were used.

Q 14. Create a base class called shape. Use this class to store two double type values that could be used to compute the area of figures. Derive two specific classes called triangle and rectangle from the base shape. Add to the base class, a member function get_data ( ) to initialize base class data members and another member function display_area ( ) to compute and display the area of figures. Make display_area ( ) as a virtual function and redefine this function in the derived classes to suit their requirements.
Using these three classes, design a program that will accept dimensions of a triangle or a
rectangle interactively and display the area.

Remember the two values given as input will be treated as lengths of two sides in the case of
rectangles and as base and height in the case of triangles and used as follows:
Area of rectangle = x * y
Area of triangle = ½ * x * y

IT-208 E Multimedia Technologies Lab.

L T P Class Work: 25
- - 2 Exam: 25
Total: 50
Duration of Exam: 3 Hrs.

1. Write a program to justify a text entered by the user on both the left and right hand side. For example, the test “ An architect may have a graphics program to draw an entire building but be interested in only ground floor”, can be justified in 30 columns as shown below. An architect may have a Graphics programs draw an Entric building but be interested in only ground floor.
2. Study the notes of a piano and stimulate them using the key board and store them in a file.
3. Write a program to read a paragraph and store it to a file name suggested by the author.
4. Devise a routine to produce the animation effect of a square transforming to a triangle and then to a circle.
5. Write a program to show a bitmap image on your computer screen.
6. Create a web page for a clothing company which contains all the details of that company and at-least five links to other web pages.
7. Write a program by which we can split mpeg video into smaller pieces for the purpose of sending it over the web or by small capacity floppy diskettes and then joining them at the destination.
8. Write a program to simulate the game of pool table.
9. Write a program to simulate the game Mine Sweeper.
10. Write a program to play “wave” or “midi” format sound files.

Note: At least 5 to 10 more exercises to be given by the teacher concerned.

CSE 214 E Internet Lab.

L T P Class Work: 25
- - 2 Exam: 25
Total: 50
Duration of Exam: 3 Hrs.

Exercises involving:

Sending and receiving mails.

Chatting on the net.

Using FTP and Tel net server.

Using HTML Tags (table, form, image, anchor etc.).

Making a Web page of your college using HTML tags.

Note: At least 10 exercises to be given by the teacher concerned.
vijaysharma9.blogspot.com

vijay.kaushis@mail.com

Web Server(unit-5)

2010-03-30T22:51:00.000-07:00

Web Server
The term web server can mean one of two things:
A computer program that is responsible for accepting HTTP requests from clients (user agents such as web browsers), and serving them HTTP responses along with optional data contents, which usually are web pages such as HTML documents and linked objects (images, etc.).
A computer that runs a computer program as described above.
Common features
The rack of web servers hosting the My Opera Community site on the Internet. From the top, user file storage (content of files.myopera.com), "bigma" (the master MySQL database server), and two IBM blade centers containing multi-purpose machines (Apache front ends, Apache back ends, slave MySQL database servers, load balancers, file servers, cache servers and sync masters.
Although web server programs differ in detail, they all share some basic common features.
HTTP: every web server program operates by accepting HTTP requests from the client, and providing an HTTP response to the client. The HTTP response usually consists of an HTML document, but can also be a raw file, an image, or some other type of document (defined by MIME-types). If some error is found in client request or while trying to serve it, a web server has to send an error response which may include some custom HTML or text messages to better explain the problem to end users.
Logging: usually web servers have also the capability of logging some detailed information, about client requests and server responses, to log files; this allows the webmaster to collect statistics by running log analyzers on these files.
In practice many web servers implement the following features also:
Authentication, optional authorization request (request of user name and password) before allowing access to some or all kind of resources.
Handling of static content (file content recorded in server's filesystem(s)) and dynamic content by supporting one or more related interfaces (SSI, CGI, SCGI, FastCGI, JSP, PHP, ASP, ASP.NET, Server API such as NSAPI, ISAPI, etc.).
HTTPS support (by SSL or TLS) to allow secure (encrypted) connections to the server on the standard port 443 instead of usual port 80.
Content compression to reduce the size of the responses (to lower bandwidth usage, etc.).
Virtual hosting to serve many web sites using one IP address.
Large file support to be able to serve files whose size is greater than 2 GB on 32 bit OS.
Bandwidth throttling to limit the speed of responses in order to not saturate the network and to be able to serve more clients.
Load limits
A web server (program) has defined load limits, because it can handle only a limited number of concurrent client connections (usually between 2 and 60,000, by default between 500 and 1,000) per IP address (and TCP port) and it can serve only a certain maximum number of requests per second depending on:
its own settings;
the HTTP request type;
content origin (static or dynamic);
the fact that the served content is or is not cached;
the hardware and software limits of the OS where it is working.
When a web server is near to or over its limits, it becomes overloaded and thus unresponsive.

UNIT – 3 World Wide Web

2010-03-30T22:49:00.000-07:00

UNIT – 3 World Wide Web

3.1 Introduction

The World Wide Web (commonly shortened to the Web) is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet. With a Web browser, one can view Web pages that may contain text, images, videos, and other multimedia and navigate between them using hyperlinks.
The World Wide Web enabled the spread of information over the Internet through an easy-to-use and flexible format. It thus played an important role in popularising use of the Internet, to the extent that the World Wide Web has become a synonym for Internet, with the two being conflated in popular use.
How it works
Viewing a Web page on the World Wide Web normally begins either by typing the URL of the page into a Web browser, or by following a hyperlink to that page or resource. The Web browser then initiates a series of communication messages, behind the scenes, in order to fetch and display it.
First, the server-name portion of the URL is resolved into an IP address using the global, distributed Internet database known as the domain name system, or DNS. This IP address is necessary to contact and send data packets to the Web server.
The browser then requests the resource by sending an HTTP request to the Web server at that particular address. In the case of a typical Web page, the HTML text of the page is requested first and parsed immediately by the Web browser, which will then make additional requests for images and any other files that form a part of the page. Statistics measuring a website's popularity are usually based on the number of 'page views' or associated server 'hits', or file requests, which take place.
Client Server Architecture of WWW
WWW is based on Client-server architecture, where web browser is the client which sends HTTP request and web server filfills that request.
3.2 Web Browser

A Web browser is a software application which enables a user to display and interact with text, images, videos, music, games and other information typically located on a Web page at a Web site on the World Wide Web or a local area network. Text and images on a Web page can contain hyperlinks to other Web pages at the same or different Web site. Web browsers allow a user to quickly and easily access information provided on many Web pages at many Web sites by traversing these links. Web browsers format HTML information for display, so the appearance of a Web page may differ between browsers.
Web browsers are the most-commonly-used type of HTTP user agent. Although browsers are typically used to access the World Wide Web, they can also be used to access information provided by Web servers in private networks or content in file systems
Current Web browsers
Some of the Web browsers currently available for personal computers include Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Safari, Opera, Avant Browser, Konqueror, Lynx, Google Chrome, Flock, Arachne, Epiphany, K-Meleon and AOL Explorer.
Protocols and standards
Web browsers communicate with Web servers primarily using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) to fetch Web pages. HTTP allows Web browsers to submit information to Web servers as well as fetch Web pages from them. The most-commonly-used version of HTTP is HTTP/1.1, which is fully defined in RFC 2616. HTTP/1.1 has its own required standards that Internet Explorer does not fully support, but most other current-generation Web browsers do.
Pages are located by means of a URL(Uniform Resource Locator, RFC 1738), which is treated as an address, beginning with http: for HTTP transmission. Many browsers also support a variety of other URL types and their corresponding protocols, such as gopher: for Gopher (a hierarchical hyperlinking protocol), ftp: for File Transfer Protocol (FTP), rtsp: for Real-time Streaming Protocol (RTSP), and https: for HTTPS (HTTP Secure, which is HTTP augmented by Secure Sockets Layer or Transport Layer Security).
The file format for a Web page is usually HTML (HyperText Markup Language) and is identified in the HTTP protocol using a MIME content type. Most browsers natively support a variety of formats in addition to HTML, such as the JPEG, PNG and GIF image formats, and can be extended to support more through the use of plugins. The combination of HTTP content type and URL protocol specification allows Web-page designers to embed images, animations, video, sound, and streaming media into a Web page, or to make them accessible through the Web page.
3.2.1 Web Browser Interface

3.2.2 Web Browser Details

3.2.2.1 Personal preferences

Most browsers have a number of options that you can set.
· Cookies:
HTTP cookies, more commonly referred to as Web cookies, tracking cookies or just cookies, are parcels of text sent by a server to a Web client (usually a browser) and then sent back unchanged by the client each time it accesses that server. HTTP cookies are used for authenticating, session tracking (state maintenance), and maintaining specific information about users, such as site preferences or the contents of their electronic shopping carts. The term "cookie" is derived from "magic cookie," a well-known concept in UNIX computing which inspired both the idea and the name of HTTP cookies.
Relevant count of maximum stored cookies per domain for the major browsers are:
Firefox 1.5: 50
Firefox 2.0: 50
Opera 9: 30
Internet Explorer 6: 20 (raised to 50 in update on August 14, 2007)
Internet Explorer 7: 20 (raised to 50 in update on August 14, 2007)
Enabling Cookies in Your Web Browser
In order for this service to work correctly, cookies must be enabled in your Web browser. A cookie is a message given to a Web browser by a Web server. The browser stores the message in a text file and sends it back to the server when it's needed. Cookies are used in this service to save your username and password and establish and maintain a path to a particular server during the research session.
To enable cookies in Internet Explorer,
1. From the Tools menu, choose Internet Options.
2. Click the Security tab and then click Custom Level.
3. Scroll to Cookies and select Enable. This allows cookies to be stored on your computer.
4. Click OK in the Security Settings dialog box.
5. Click OK in the Internet Options dialog box.
To enable cookies in Netscape,
1. From the Edit menu, choose Preferences.
2. Click Advanced in the left frame.
3. In the Cookies section, select Accept all cookies.
4. Click OK.

· Disk cache:
A disk cache is a mechanism for improving the time it takes to read from or write to a hard disk. Today, the disk cache is usually included as part of the hard disk. A disk cache can also be a specified portion of random access memory (RAM).
When a web page is displayed within your web browser, the text and any pictures are stored locally on your system or commonly known as temporary files. The next time the same web page is visited, you web browser communicates with the web browser to confirm that the page and pictures stored on your system are the latest version. If so, the page is loaded from your local hard disk versus loading the page from the web server.
Disk cache set up instructions for your Internet Explorer Web Browser:
Step 1.
Move your mouse to the top line of your web browser to the word "View" and press and hold your left mouse button.
Step 2.
Move your mouse pointer down to "Internet Options" and release the left mouse button.

Step 3.
Move your mouse pointer and press the button "Settings..."
Step 4.
Select one of the two options to:
Every visit to the page
or
Every time you start Internet Explorer

Step 5.
Press the button "OK".
Step 6.
Press the button "OK".

· Fonts
Set the fonts large enough to be seen easily, generally at least point size 12. There are often two settings, one for normal text, and one for old-fashioned typewriter type text that needs each character to take the same amount of space. Set the normal text -- perhaps called "Web page font", "Proportional", or "Variable width font" -- to a modern font like "Arial" or "Times New Roman". Set the typewriter style text -- perhaps called "Plain text font", "Fixed width font", or "Monospace" -- to "Courier New" or if not available then plain "Courier".
Explorer: Tools / Internet Options / General / FontsFirefox: Tools / Options / General / Fonts & Colors.

· URL display
Set the browser to display the site's URL in the top border, so that you can always see the full address of any page you visit.
Explorer: View / Toolbars / Address BarFirefox: Right-click on File / Edit bar at the top of window, select "Navigation Toolbar".

· Set home page
Set your home page to the Internet site you wish displayed when your browser starts. You can set your home page to your own home page, a search engine site, or a favorite subject page like a sports or gardening site. If you want your first page to start quickly, you should specify a simple page with fewer graphics, or no page at all.
Explorer: Tools / Internet Options / General / Home pageFirefox: Tools / Options / General / Home page

· Page reloading
Set your browser to use a copy of a web page in your computer's cache if it is not older than the maximum age specified by the server. Typically a browser will use a cached page throughout one browser session, unless the page is marked with HTML that specifies it be reloaded with some other frequency, such as every time, after one hour, after 24 hours, etc. This can speed up your surfing since it saves the time of reloading the page when it hasn't changed.
Explorer: Tools / Internet Options / General / Temporary Internet Files / Settings / Every time you start Internet ExplorerFirefox: Automatic setting.
· Images

Managing images in browsers:
Mozilla Firefox 2.0
On Windows, select the "Tools" menu, on Mac OSX, select the "Firefox" menu, or on Linux select the "Edit" menu.
Select "Options" on Windows, or "Preferences" on Mac OSX and Linux
Click the "Content" tab.
Uncheck the checkbox "Load images automatically."
Internet Explorer 7
Click the "Tools" button.
Select "Internet Options".
Click the "Advanced" tab.
Scroll down to "Multimedia" and uncheck "Show pictures".

· Javascript and JAVA

To enable JavaScript in Microsoft Internet Explorer 5.x or 6.x, perform the following steps:
From the Tools menu, click Internet Options.
From the Security tab, click Custom Level.
The Internet icon is highlighted by default.
Scroll to Java permissions and click to select High safety.
Click OK.

Click OK.

From the File menu, click Close.
Re-launch your browser.

To enable or disable Java
1. Open Internet Explorer by clicking the Start button , and then clicking Internet Explorer
2. Click the Tools button, and then click Internet Options.
3. Click the Advanced tab.
4. If Java is installed, there will be a Java section in the Settings list. To enable Java, select the option under Java. To disable Java, clear the option under Java. When you are finished, click OK.

3.2.2.2 Bookmarks/ Favourites
Internet bookmarks are stored Web page locations (URLs) that can be retrieved. As a feature of all modern Internet web browsers, their primary purpose is to easily catalog and access web pages that a user has visited and chosen to save. Saved links are called "favorites" in Internet Explorer, and by virtue of the browser's large market share, the term favorite has been synonymous with bookmark since the early days of widely-distributed browsers. Bookmarks are normally visible in a browser menu and stored on the user's computer, and commonly a folder metaphor is be used for organization. In addition to bookmarking methods within most browsers, many external applications exist for bookmark management.
Storage
Each browser has a built-in tool for managing the list of bookmarks. The list storage method varies, depending on the browser, its version, and the operating system on which it runs.
In Netscape-derived browsers, bookmarks are stored in the single HTML-coded file bookmarks.html. This approach permits publication and printing of a categorized and indented catalog, and works across platforms. Bookmark names need not be unique. Editing this file outside of its native browser requires editing HTML.
Firefox 3 stores bookmarks, history, cookies, and preferences in a transactionally secure database format (SQLite).
In Internet Explorer, "Favorites" (also "Internet Shortcuts") are stored as individual files named with the original link name, and the filename extension ".URL", for example "Home Page.URL". They are collected in a directory named "Favorites", which may have subdirectories. Bookmark names must be unique within a folder. Each file contains the original URL and Microsoft-specific metadata. Browsers have varying abilities to import and export bookmarks to favorites and vice versa.
Managing Bookmarks in Internet Explorer:
1. Launch Firefox from the icon on your desktop or through your "Start"(Explorer) menu by finding Mozilla Firefox in your "Programs" or "All Programs" section.
2. Click on "Bookmarks" in the top toolbar (in between "History" and "Tools"). Under this menu, click "Organize Bookmarks". Another browser window will pop up listing all your bookmarks. In this new window, there is a list of icons at the top.
3. Select "Bookmarks" from the far left pane, then click on "New Folder", which is the second icon button at the top. A new folder will appear at the bottom of your bookmark list in the far left pane, and a dialog window will appear.
4. Rename the folder to something appropriate, then click "Ok".

5. Scroll through your bookmarks in the right pane to find the ones you want to move to this folder.
Click on the first one you'd like to move.
Hold down the "Ctrl" key and continue to click on others to move. This will highlight only the bookmarks you select.

6. Click and drag your selections to the new folder you have created in the far left pane.
7. Repeat these steps to create additional folders and organize related bookmarks.

Managing favourites in Internet Explorer:
1. In Microsoft Internet Explorer, go to a Web site that you would like to go back to frequently.
2. Select Add to Favorites from the Favorites menu.
3. In the Name box, type in a name for the favorite page.
4. Create a new folder in which to organize your bookmark by clicking the New Folder button. (If the New Folder button is not visible, first click the Create In button.)
5. Type a name for the new folder, and then click OK.
6. In the Add Favorite dialog box, make sure the new folder is selected, and then click OK.
7. Whenever you want to view your new favorite page, click the Favorites menu. Point to the new folder that you created to view a list of the favorite pages contained within it, and then click the book marked Web site.
8. Keep adding sites to your Favorites list and organizing them into curriculum-related folders.

3.2.2.3 Plug-ins and Helper applications
Plug-ins:
A plug-in consists of a computer program that interacts with a host application (a web browser or an email client, for example) to provide a certain, usually very specific, function "on demand". Applications support plugins for many reasons.
Some of the main reasons include:
to enable third-party developers to create capabilities to extend an application
to support features yet unforeseen
to reduce the size of an application
to separate source code from an application because of incompatible software licenses.

Following are the examples of Plug-ins:
Beatnik
QuickTime
RealPlayer
Shockwave
VivoActive Player
· Beatnik:
Beatnik delivers high-quality interactive sound from websites. It is provided by Headspace, Inc. and is available for Netscape Navigator and Communicator on both Macintosh PowerPC and Windows 95/NT. The Headspace website offers detailed information on Beatnik, as well as an array of sites that showcase the plug-in's capabilities.
· QuickTime:
QuickTime, a product of Apple, Inc., is capable of delivering multimedia such as movies, audio, MIDI soundtracks, 3D animation, and virtual reality. It is available to Macintosh and Windows 3.x/95/NT. The QuickTime package contains plug-in and helper applications. The QuickTime Plug-in allows QuickTime and QuickTime VR content to be viewed directly within a browser. The Movie Player and Picture Viewer, helper applications, allow all QuickTime multimedia to be played (file creation and editing can be completed with QuickTime Pro).
· RealPlayer:
RealPlayer is a live and on-demand RealAudio and Real Video player, which functions without, download delays. It is provided by Real Networks, Inc. and is available for Macintosh, Unix, and Windows 3.1/95/NT as both a plug-in and helper application. To test your RealPlayer plug-in, visit any of the sites listed in their showcase. The plug-in is compatible with many popular browsers.
· Shockwave:
The Shockwave plug-in, provided by Macromedia, Inc., allows multimedia files created using Macromedia's Director, Authorware, and Flash to be viewed directly in your web browser. The plug-in is compatible with Netscape Navigator 2.0 or later and Internet Explorer 3.0 or later on Macintosh and Windows 3.1/95/NT platforms.
· VivoActive Player:
VivoActive Player delivers on-demand video and audio from any website offering VivoActive content. This product, provided by Vivo Software, Inc., is available for Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer browsers on Power Macintosh and Windows 3.x/95/NT platforms.

Helper Applications:
A helper application is an external viewer program launched to display content retrieved using a web browser.
Unlike a plugin(whose full code is included into browser code), a small line is added to the browser code to tell it to open a certain helper application in case it encounters a certain file format.
Following are the examples of helper Applications:
· Adobe Acrobat Reader
· QuickTime
· RealPlayer
· Adobe Acrobat Reader
Acrobat Reader allows you to access PDF files on the web. It is provided by Adobe Systems, Inc. and is available for Macintosh, Unix, and Windows 3.x/95/NT.
· QuickTime
QuickTime, a product of Apple, Inc., is capable of delivering multimedia such as movies, audio, MIDI soundtracks, 3D animation, and virtual reality. It is available to Macintosh and Windows 3.x/95/NT. The QuickTime package contains plug-in and helper applications. The QuickTime Plug-in allows QuickTime and QuickTime VR content to be viewed directly within a browser. The Movie Player and Picture Viewer, helper applications, allow all QuickTime multimedia to be played (file creation and editing can be completed with QuickTime Pro).
· RealPlayer
RealPlayer is a live and on-demand RealAudio and RealVideo player which functions without download delays. It is provided by RealNetworks, Inc. and is available for Macintosh, Unix, and Windows 3.1/95/NT as both a plug-in and helper application. To test your RealPlayer plug-in, visit any of the sites listed in their showcase. The plug-in is compatible with many popular browsers. For a complete listing visit the RealPlayer system requirements page.

3.3 Search engine
A Web search engine is a tool designed to search for information on the World Wide Web. Information may consist of web pages, images, information and other types of files. Some search engines also mine data available in newsbooks, databases, or open directories. Unlike Web directories, which are maintained by human editors, search engines operate algorithmically or are a mixture of algorithmic and human input.
How Web search engines work
A search engine operates, in the following order
Web crawling
Indexing
Searching
1. Web crawling
A Web crawler (also known as a Web spider, Web robot, is a program or automated script that browses the World Wide Web in a methodical, automated manner. Other less frequently used names for Web crawlers are ants, automatic indexers, bots, and worms.
This process is called Web crawling or spidering. Many sites, in particular search engines, use spidering as a means of providing up-to-date data. Web crawlers are mainly used to create a copy of all the visited pages for later processing by a search engine that will index the downloaded pages to provide fast searches. Crawlers can also be used for automating maintenance tasks on a Web site, such as checking links or validating HTML code. Also, crawlers can be used to gather specific types of information from Web pages, such as harvesting e-mail addresses (usually for spam).
A Web crawler is one type of bot, or software agent. In general, it starts with a list of URLs to visit, called the seeds. As the crawler visits these URLs, it identifies all the hyperlinks in the page and adds them to the list of URLs to visit, called the crawl frontier. URLs from the frontier are recursively visited according to a set of policies.
Crawling policies
There are three important characteristics of the Web that make crawling it very difficult:
its large volume,
its fast rate of change, and
dynamic page generation.
The behavior of a Web crawler is the outcome of a combination of policies:
a selection policy that states which pages to download,
a re-visit policy that states when to check for changes to the pages,
a politeness policy that states how to avoid overloading Web sites, and
a parallelization policy that states how to coordinate distributed Web crawlers.
Web crawler architectures

Examples of Web crawlers
The following is a list of published crawler architectures for general-purpose:
RBSE
WebCrawler
World Wide Web
Google Crawler
PolyBot
FAST Crawler
Open-source crawlers
DataparkSearch
GNU Wget
Heritrix
HTTrack
ICDL Crawler.
Pavuk
YaCy

2. Indexing
Search engine indexing collects, parses, and stores data to facilitate fast and accurate information retrieval. Index design incorporates interdisciplinary concepts from linguistics, cognitive psychology, mathematics, informatics, physics and computer science. An alternate name for the process in the context of search engines designed to find web pages on the Internet is Web indexing.
The purpose of storing an index is to optimize speed and performance in finding relevant documents for a search query. Without an index, the search engine would scan every document in the corpus, which would require considerable time and computing power. For example, while an index of 10,000 documents can be queried within milliseconds, a sequential scan of every word in 10,000 large documents could take hours. The additional computer storage required to store the index, as well as the considerable increase in the time required for an update to take place, are traded off for the time saved during information retrieval.
Index Design Factors
Major factors in designing a search engine's architecture include:
a. Merge factors
How data enters the index, or how words or subject features are added to the index during text corpus traversal, and whether multiple indexers can work asynchronously.
b. Storage techniques
How to store the index data, that is, whether information should be data compressed or filtered.
c. Index size
How much computer storage is required to support the index.
d. Lookup speed
How quickly a word can be found in the inverted index.
e. Maintenance
How the index is maintained over time.
f. Fault tolerance
How important it is for the service to be reliable.

Document Parsing
Document parsing breaks apart the components (words) of a document or other form of media for insertion into the forward and inverted indices. The words found are called tokens, and so, in the context of search engine indexing and natural language processing, parsing is more commonly referred to as tokenization. It is also sometimes called word boundary disambiguation, tagging, text segmentation, content analysis, text analysis, text mining, concordance generation, speech segmentation, lexing, or lexical analysis. The terms 'indexing', 'parsing', and 'tokenization' are used interchangeably in corporate slang.

3. Searching
A web search query is a query that a user enters into web search engine to satisfy his or her information needs. Web search queries are distinctive in that they are unstructured and often ambiguous; they vary greatly from standard query languages which are governed by strict syntax rules.
Types
There are three broad categories that cover most web search queries[1]:
Informational queries – Queries that cover a broad topic (e.g., colorado or trucks) for which there may be thousands of relevant results.
Navigational queries – Queries that seek a single website or web page of a single entity (e.g., youtube or delta airlines).
Transactional queries – Queries that reflect the intent of the user to perform a particular action, like purchasing a car or downloading a screen saver.
Search engines often support a fourth type of query that is used far less frequently:
Connectivity queries – Queries that report on the connectivity of the indexed web graph.
Characteristics
Most commercial web search engines do not disclose their search logs, so information about what users are searching for on the Web is difficult to come by. Nevertheless, a study in 2001 [3] analyzed the queries from the Excite search engine showed some interesting characteristics of web search:
The average length of a search query was 2.4 terms.
About half of the users entered a single query while a little less than a third of users entered three or more unique queries.
Close to half of the users examined only the first one or two pages of results (10 results per page).
Less than 5% of users used advanced search features (e.g., Boolean operators like AND, OR, and NOT).

3.3.1 Metasearch engine
Meta-search engine is a search tool that sends user requests to several other search engines and/or databases and aggregates the results into a single list or displays them according to their source. Metasearch engines enable users to enter search criteria once and access several search engines simultaneously. Metasearch engines operate on the premise that the Web is too large for any one search engine to index it all and that more comprehensive search results can be obtained by combining the results from several search engines. This also may save the user from having to use multiple search engines separately.
The term Metasearch is frequently used to classify a set of commercial search engines, see the list of search engines, but is also used to describe the paradigm of searching multiple data sources in real time. The National Information Standards Organization (NISO) uses the terms Federated Search and Metasearch interchangeably to describe this web search paradigm.

Architecture of a metasearch engine

Operation
Metasearch engines create what is known as a virtual database. They do not compile a physical database or catalogue of the web. Instead, they take a user's request, pass it to several other heterogeneous databases and then compile the results in a homogeneous manner based on a specific algorithm.
No two metasearch engines are alike. Some search only the most popular search engines while others also search lesser-known engines, newsgroups, and other databases. They also differ in how the results are presented and the quantity of engines that are used. Some will list results according to search engine or database. Others return results according to relevance, often concealing which search engine returned which results. This benefits the user by eliminating duplicate hits and grouping the most relevant ones at the top of the list.

3.4 Telnet

Telnet (Telecommunication Network) is a client – server protocol, based on a reliable connection – oriented transport. Telnet is a program that allows a user to login to another computer from an account into which the user is already logged.
It was developed in 1969 beginning with RFC 15 and standardized as IETF STD 8, one of the first Internet standards. Typically, telnet provides access to a command-line interface on a remote machine

Most implementations of TELNET have no authentication to ensure that communication is carried out between the two desired hosts and not intercepted in the middle.
The term telnet also refers to software which implements the client part of the protocol. Telnet clients are available for virtually all platforms. Most network equipment with a TCP/IP stack support some kind of Telnet service server for their remote configuration (including ones based on Windows NT). Because of security issues with Telnet, its use has waned in favour of SSH(Secure Shell) for remote access.
"To telnet" is also used as a verb meaning to establish or use a Telnet or other interactive TCP connection, as in, "To change your password, telnet to the server and run the passwd command".
Most often, a user will be telnetting to a Unix-like server system or a simple network device such as a router. For example, a user might "telnet in from home to check his mail at school". In doing so, he would be using a telnet client to connect from his computer to one of his servers. Once the connection is established, he would then log in with his account information and execute operating system commands remotely on that computer, such as ls or cd.
On many systems, the client may also be used to make interactive raw-TCP sessions. It is commonly believed that a telnet session which does not include an IAC (character 255) is functionally identical. This is not the case however due to special NVT (Network Virtual Terminal) rules such as the requirement for a bare CR (ASCII 13) to be followed by a NULL (ASCII 0).
Protocol details
Telnet is a client-server protocol, based on a reliable connection-oriented transport. Typically this protocol is used to establish a connection to TCP port 23, where a getty-equivalent program (telnetd) is listening, although Telnet predates TCP/IP and was originally run on NCP(Network Control Program).
Various Commands Used By TELNET

telnet to open a TELNET prompt.

telnet > open hostname to connect to a host. Hostname is the machine domain
name (for example, hopper.unh.edu) or the numerical
Internet Address of the machine. In some cases, one may
have to specify a port number.

telnet > help or telnet > ? Result in the Telnet documentation being displayed
that provides on – line help.

telnet > close used to end the Telnet session after logging out of the
or telnet > quit remote machine.

telnet > mode try to enter line or characters.

telnet > send transmit special characters.

telnet > set set operating parameters.

telnet > unset unset operating parameters.

telnet > status print status information.

telnet > slc change state of special characters.

telnet > z suspend telnet.

telnet > ! Invoke a sub shell.

telnet > ? Print help information.

telnet > return leave a command mode.

3.5 FTP

FTP fundamentals
FTP sites are typically used for uploading and downloading files to a central server computer, for the sake of file distribution.
In order to download and upload files to an FTP site, you need to connect using special FTP software. There are both commercial and free FTP software programs, and some browser-based free FTP programs as well.
The typical information needed to connect to an FTP site is:
The "server address" or "hostname". This is the network address of the computer you wish to connect to, such as ftp.microsoft.com.
The username and password. These are the credentials you use to access the specific files on the computer you wish to connect to.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

File transfer is an application that allows the user to transfer files between two computers on the Internet or on the same network.

The two most important file transfer functions are:

Ø Copying a file from another computer to the sender’s own computer. (downloading).
Ø Sending a file from user’s own computer to another computer. (uploading).

FTP connection types:

FTP Session typically consists of two type of connection:
Data connection
Control connection

· Control connection goes from the FTP client to port 21 on the FTP server. This connection is used for logon and to send commands and responses between the endpoints.
· Data transfers (including the output of “ls” and “dir” commands) requires a second data connection.
The data connection is dependent on the mode that the client is operating in:
Passive Mode
(often the default for web browsers) -- The client issues a PASV command. Upon receipt of this command, the server listens on a dynamically-allocated port then sends a PASV reply to the client. The PASV reply gives the IP address and port number that the server is listening on. The client then opens a second connection to that IP address and port number.
Active Mode
(often the default for line-mode clients) -- The client listens on a dynamically-allocated port then sends a PORT command to the server. The PORT command gives the IP address and port number that the client is listening on. The server then opens a connection to that IP address and port number; the source port for this connection is 20.

FTP Clients

Graphical File Transfer Clients

These applications display the sending computer’s file system in one window and the receiving computer’s file system in a second window.

Connecting to a remote computer for transferring files involves log in process that asks for:

The hostname or the IP address of the remote computer being connected to,
user ID of the user, and
the password

To transfer a file from one system to another, one can “drag” it using the mouse and “drop” it on the other system.

Double clicking on a file will usually cause it to be automatically transferred to the other side.

Graphical FTP client provides the option for transfer setting mode. Most clients can have a text transfer mode (ASCII) and a binary transfer mode. The mode should be set to text when transferring text files, while it should be set to binary when transferring images, files containing special characters or executable files.

After completing the FTP session, it is closed by clicking on “CLOSE” button and then exit the FTP client by clicking on the “EXIT” button.

Text – based File Transfer Clients

The text – based file transfer clients can use the various commands for transferring files from one system to another.

A file transfer client called File Transfer Protocol (FTP) can be launched by entering the command:

Start-> Run-> FTP

Once an FTP client starts running, a prompt appears as

ftp >

Now the first command to be used is

ftp > open hostname

This will allow you to open a connection to another machine.
After connecting to the server you will be asked for User-name and Password.

ftp> username: anonymous
password: --------

For a public login anonymous as User-name and a valid E-maid ID or Anonymous as Password can be provided.

Various other commands provided are:

ftp > bye Terminate the session and exit the file transfer
program.

ftp > cd change directory.

ftp > get Download a file.

ftp > help view a list of commands or help on a specific
command.

ftp > ls list the files in the current directory.

ftp > put Upload a file.

ftp > pwd print the name of the current directory.

ftp > mget “multiple get” allows to retrieve multiple files.

ftp > mput “multiple put” allows to send multiple files at once.

If the user does not want to be asked whether to transfer each file, he can turn prompt off by using command:
ftp > prompt

To transfer binary files, it should be mentioned by using the command:

ftp > binary

After the completion of FTP session, use the bye command to terminate the session or use the following command for the purpose:

ftp > quit
Web Server
The term web server can mean one of two things:
A computer program that is responsible for accepting HTTP requests from clients (user agents such as web browsers), and serving them HTTP responses along with optional data contents, which usually are web pages such as HTML documents and linked objects (images, etc.).
A computer that runs a computer program as described above.
Common features
The rack of web servers hosting the My Opera Community site on the Internet. From the top, user file storage (content of files.myopera.com), "bigma" (the master MySQL database server), and two IBM blade centers containing multi-purpose machines (Apache front ends, Apache back ends, slave MySQL database servers, load balancers, file servers, cache servers and sync masters.
Although web server programs differ in detail, they all share some basic common features.
HTTP: every web server program operates by accepting HTTP requests from the client, and providing an HTTP response to the client. The HTTP response usually consists of an HTML document, but can also be a raw file, an image, or some other type of document (defined by MIME-types). If some error is found in client request or while trying to serve it, a web server has to send an error response which may include some custom HTML or text messages to better explain the problem to end users.
Logging: usually web servers have also the capability of logging some detailed information, about client requests and server responses, to log files; this allows the webmaster to collect statistics by running log analyzers on these files.
In practice many web servers implement the following features also:
Authentication, optional authorization request (request of user name and password) before allowing access to some or all kind of resources.
Handling of static content (file content recorded in server's filesystem(s)) and dynamic content by supporting one or more related interfaces (SSI, CGI, SCGI, FastCGI, JSP, PHP, ASP, ASP.NET, Server API such as NSAPI, ISAPI, etc.).
HTTPS support (by SSL or TLS) to allow secure (encrypted) connections to the server on the standard port 443 instead of usual port 80.
Content compression to reduce the size of the responses (to lower bandwidth usage, etc.).
Virtual hosting to serve many web sites using one IP address.
Large file support to be able to serve files whose size is greater than 2 GB on 32 bit OS.
Bandwidth throttling to limit the speed of responses in order to not saturate the network and to be able to serve more clients.
Load limits
A web server (program) has defined load limits, because it can handle only a limited number of concurrent client connections (usually between 2 and 60,000, by default between 500 and 1,000) per IP address (and TCP port) and it can serve only a certain maximum number of requests per second depending on:
its own settings;
the HTTP request type;
content origin (static or dynamic);
the fact that the served content is or is not cached;
the hardware and software limits of the OS where it is working.
When a web server is near to or over its limits, it becomes overloaded and thus unresponsive.

Introduction to networks and Internet

2010-03-30T22:46:00.001-07:00

UNIT – 2 The Internet

Introduction to networks and Internet

Network:
A network is a series of points or nodes interconnected by communication paths. Networks can interconnect with other networks and contain sub networks.
A group of two or more computer systems linked together. There are many types of computer networks, including:
· Local-area networks (LANs) : The computers are geographically close together (that is, in the same building).
· Wide-area networks (WANs) : The computers are farther apart and are connected by telephone lines or radio waves.
· Metropolitan-area networks MANs): A data network designed for a town or city.

In addition to these types, the following characteristics are also used to categorize different types of networks:
· Topology : The geometric arrangement of a computer system. Common topologies include a bus, star, and ring. See the Network topology diagrams.
· Protocol : The protocol defines a common set of rules and signals that computers on the network use to communicate. One of the most popular protocols for LANs is called Ethernet. Another popular LAN protocol for PCs is the IBM token-ring network.
· Architecture : Networks can be broadly classified as using either a peer-to-peer or client/server architecture.
Computers on a network are sometimes called nodes. Computers and devices that allocate resources for a network are called servers.

Internet:
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that interchange data by packet switching using the standardized Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP). It is a "network of networks" that consists of millions of private and public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope that are linked by copper wires, fiber-optic cables, wireless connections, and other technologies.
The Internet carries various information resources and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer and file sharing, online gaming, and the inter-linked hypertext documents and other resources of the World Wide Web (WWW).

History of Internet
The history of the Internet began with the ARPANET and connected mainframe computers on dedicated connections. The second stage involved adding desktop PCs which connected through telephone wires. The third stage was adding wireless connections to laptop computers. And currently the Internet is evolving to allow mobile phone Internet connectivity ubiquitously using cellular networks.
The ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) developed by ARPA of the United States Department of Defense, was the world's first operational packet switching network, and the predecessor of the global Internet.
Packet switching, now the dominant basis for both data and voice communication worldwide, was a new and important concept in data communications. Previously, data communication was based on the idea of circuit switching, as in the old typical telephone circuit, where a dedicated circuit is tied up for the duration of the call and communication is only possible with the single party on the other end of the circuit.
Before the Internet:
In the 1950s and early 1960s, prior to the widespread inter-networking that led to the Internet, most communication networks were limited in that they only allowed communications between the stations on the network. Some networks had gateways or bridges between them, but these bridges were often limited or built specifically for a single use. One prevalent computer networking method was based on the central mainframe method, simply allowing its terminals to be connected via long leased lines.
Three terminals and an ARPA
A fundamental pioneer in the call for a global network, J.C.R. Licklider, articulated the ideas in his January 1960 paper, Man-Computer Symbiosis.
"A network of such [computers], connected to one another by wide-band communication lines [which provided] the functions of present-day libraries together with anticipated advances in information storage and retrieval and [other] symbiotic functions."
—J.C.R. Licklider, [2]
In October 1962, Licklider was appointed head of the United States Department of Defense's Advanced Research Projects Agency, now known as DARPA, within the information processing office. There he formed an informal group within DARPA to further computer research. As part of the information processing office's role, three network terminals had been installed: one for System Development Corporation in Santa Monica, one for Project Genie at the University of California, Berkeley and one for the Compatible Time-Sharing System project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Licklider's identified need for inter-networking would be made obvious by the apparent waste of resources this caused.
"For each of these three terminals, I had three different sets of user commands. So if I was talking online with someone at S.D.C. and I wanted to talk to someone I knew at Berkeley or M.I.T. about this, I had to get up from the S.D.C. terminal, go over and log into the other terminal and get in touch with them. [...] I said, it's obvious what to do (But I don't want to do it): If you have these three terminals, there ought to be one terminal that goes anywhere you want to go where you have interactive computing. That idea is the ARPAnet."
Networks that led to the Internet
ARPANET
Promoted to the head of the information processing office at DARPA, Robert Taylor intended to realize Licklider's ideas of an interconnected networking system. Bringing in Larry Roberts from MIT, he initiated a project to build such a network. The first ARPANET link was established between the University of California, Los Angeles and the Stanford Research Institute on 22:30 hours on October 29, 1969. By 5 December 1969, a 4-node network was connected by adding the University of Utah and the University of California, Santa Barbara. Building on ideas developed in ALOHAnet, the ARPANET grew rapidly. By 1981, the number of hosts had grown to 213, with a new host being added approximately every twenty days.
ARPANET became the technical core of what would become the Internet, and a primary tool in developing the technologies used. ARPANET development was centered around the Request for Comments (RFC) process, still used today for proposing and distributing Internet Protocols and Systems. RFC 1, entitled "Host Software", was written by Steve Crocker from the University of California, Los Angeles, and published on April 7, 1969. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing.
International collaborations on ARPANET were sparse. For various political reasons, European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks. Notable exceptions were the Norwegian Seismic Array (NORSAR) in 1972, followed in 1973 by Sweden with satellite links to the Tanum Earth Station and University College London.
X.25 and public access
Following on from ARPA's research, packet switching network standards were developed by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in the form of X.25 and related standards. In 1974, X.25 formed the basis for the SERCnet network between British academic and research sites, which later became JANET. The initial ITU Standard on X.25 was approved in March 1976. This standard was based on the concept of virtual circuits.
The British Post Office, Western Union International and Tymnet collaborated to create the first international packet switched network, referred to as the International Packet Switched Service (IPSS), in 1978. This network grew from Europe and the US to cover Canada, Hong Kong and Australia by 1981. By the 1990s it provided a worldwide networking infrastructure.
Unlike ARPAnet, X.25 was also commonly available for business use. Telenet offered its Telemail electronic mail service, but this was oriented to enterprise use rather than the general email of ARPANET.

Working of Internet

Internet is a Wide Area Network (WAN) spread allover the world which is used to connect different types of networks. This process of interconnecting the different kinds of networks is known as Internetworking.

The device used for Internetworking is router(R).

Because the Internet is a global network of computers each computer connected to the Internet must have a unique address. Internet addresses are in the form nnn.nnn.nnn.nnn where nnn must be a number from 0 - 255. This address is known as an IP address. (IP stands for Internet Protocol)
The picture below illustrates two computers connected to the Internet; your computer with IP address 1.2.3.4 and another computer with IP address 5.6.7.8. The Internet is represented as an abstract object in-between.

If you connect to the Internet through an Internet Service Provider (ISP), you are usually assigned a temporary IP address for the duration of your dial-in session. If you connect to the Internet from a local area network (LAN) your computer might have a permanent IP address or it might obtain a temporary one from a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) server. In any case, if you are connected to the Internet, your computer has a unique IP address.
Protocol Stack:
Every computer needs one to communicate on the Internet and it is usually built into the computer's operating system (i.e. Windows, Unix, etc.). The protocol stack used on the Internet is referred to as the TCP/IP protocol stack because of the two major communication protocols used. The TCP/IP stack looks like this:
Protocol Layer
Comments
Application Protocols Layer
Protocols specific to applications such as WWW, e-mail, FTP, etc.
Transmission Control Protocol Layer
TCP directs packets to a specific application on a computer using a port number.
Internet Protocol Layer
IP directs packets to a specific computer using an IP address.
Hardware Layer
Converts binary packet data to network signals and back.(E.g. ethernet network card, modem for phone lines, etc.)
If we were to follow the path that the message "Hello computer 5.6.7.8!" took from our computer to the computer with IP address 5.6.7.8, it would happen something like this:
Diagram 2

The message would start at the top of the protocol stack on your computer and work its way downward.
If the message to be sent is long, each stack layer that the message passes through may break the message up into smaller chunks of data. This is because data sent over the Internet (and most computer networks) are sent in manageable chunks. On the Internet, these chunks of data are known as packets.
The packets would go through the Application Layer and continue to the TCP layer. Each packet is assigned a port number. Many programs may be using the TCP/IP stack and sending messages. We need to know which program on the destination computer needs to receive the message because it will be listening on a specific port.
After going through the TCP layer, the packets proceed to the IP layer. This is where each packet receives it's destination address, 5.6.7.8.
Now that our message packets have a port number and an IP address, they are ready to be sent over the Internet. The hardware layer takes care of turning our packets containing the alphabetic text of our message into electronic signals and transmitting them over the phone line.
On the other end of the phone line your ISP has a direct connection to the Internet. The ISPs router examines the destination address in each packet and determines where to send it. Often, the packet's next stop is another router. More on routers and Internet infrastructure later.
Eventually, the packets reach computer 5.6.7.8. Here, the packets start at the bottom of the destination computer's TCP/IP stack and work upwards.
As the packets go upwards through the stack, all routing data that the sending computer's stack added (such as IP address and port number) is stripped from the packets.
When the data reaches the top of the stack, the packets have been re-assembled into their original form, "Hello computer 5.6.7.8!"

Internet-culture
Internet-culture is the culture that has emerged, or is emerging, from the use of computer networks for communication, entertainment and business.
Internet-culture is a wide social and cultural movement closely linked to advanced information science and information technology, their emergence, development and rise to social and cultural prominence between the 1960s and the 1990s. Internet-culture was influenced at its genesis by those early users of the internet, frequently including the architects of the original project. These individuals were often guided in their actions by the hacker ethic. While early internet-culture was based on a small cultural sample, and its ideals, the modern internet-culture is a much more diverse group of users and the ideals that they adopt.
Demonstration of Internet-culture
Demonstration of Internet-culture includes various human interactions mediated by computer networks.
They can be activities, pursuits, games, places and metaphors, and include a diverse base of applications. Some are supported by specialized software and others work on commonly accepted web protocols. Examples include but are not limited to:
Blogs
Social Networks
Games
Chat
USENET
Bulletin Board Systems
E-Commerce
Peer to Peer Networks
Virtual worlds
Features of Internet-culture
There are several features that internet-cultures share that make them warrant the prefix “cyber-“. Some of those qualities are that internet-culture:
Is a community mediated by ICTs(Information and Communications Technology).
Is culture “mediated by computer screens.”
Relies heavily on the notion of information and knowledge exchange.
Depends on the ability to manipulate tools to a degree not present in other forms of culture (even artisan culture, e.g., a glass-blowing culture).
Allows vastly expanded weak ties and has been criticized for overly emphasizing the same (see Bowling Alone and other works).
Multiplies the number of eyeballs on a given problem, beyond that which would be possible using traditional means, given physical, geographic, and temporal constraints.
Is a “cognitive and social culture, not a geographic one.”
Is “the product of like-minded people finding a common ‘place’ to interact."[10]
Is inherently more "fragile" than traditional forms of community and culture.
Identity in Internet-culture
Internet-culture, like culture in general, relies on establishing identity and credibility. However, in the absence of direct physical interaction, it could be argued that the process for such establishment is more difficult.
How does internet-culture rely on and establish identity and credibility? This relationship is two way, with identity and credibility being both used to define community in cyberspace and to be created within and by online communities.
In some senses, online credibility is established in much the same way that it is established in the off line world, however, since there are two separate worlds, it is not surprising that there are both differences in the mechanisms found in each and interactions of the markers found in each.
Architectures of Credibility
Following the model put forth by Lawrence Lessig in Code 2.0[11], the architecture of a given online community may be the single most important factor regulating the establishment of credibility within online communities. Some factors may be:
· Anonymous versus Known
· Linked to Physical Identity versus Internet-based Identity Only
· Unrated Commentary System versus Rated Commentary System
· Positive Feedback-oriented versus Mixed Feedback (positive and negative) oriented
· Moderated versus Unmoderated
Anonymous versus KnownMany sites allow anonymous commentary, where the user-id attached to the comment is something like "guest" or "anonymous user". In an architecture that allows anonymous posting about other works, the credibility being impacted is only that of the product for sale, the original opinion expressed, the code written, the YouTube video, or other entity about which comments are made (e.g., a Slashdot post). Sites that require "known" postings can vary widely from simply requiring some kind of name to be associated with the comment to requiring registration, wherein the identity of the registrant is visible to other readers of the comment. These "known" identities allow and even require commentators to be aware of their own credibility, based on the fact that other users will associate particular content and styles with their identity. By definition, then, all blog postings are "known" in that the blog exists in a consistently defined virtual location, which helps to establish an identity, around which credibility can gather. Note that a "known" identity need have nothing to do with a given identity in the physical world.
Linked to Physical Identity versus Internet-based Identity OnlyArchitectures can require that physical identity be associated with commentary, as in Lessig's example of Counsel Connect.However, to require linkage to physical identity, many more steps must be taken (collecting and storing sensitive information about a user) and safeguards for that collected information must be established-the users must have more trust of the sites collecting the information (yet another form of credibility). Irrespective of safeguards, as with Counsel Connect[12], using physical identities links credibility across the frames of the internet and real space, influencing the behaviors of those who contribute in those spaces. However, even purely internet-based identities have credibility. Just as Lessig describes linkage to a character or a particular online gaming environment, nothing inherently links a person or group to their internet-based persona, but credibility (similar to "characters") is "earned rather than bought, and because this takes time and (credibility is) not fungible, it becomes increasingly hard" to create a new persona.
Unrated Commentary System versus Rated Commentary SystemIn some architectures those who review or offer comments can, in turn, be rated by other users. This technique offers the ability to regulate the credibility of given authors by subjecting their comments to direct "quantifiable" approval ratings.
Positive Feedback-oriented versus Mixed Feedback (positive and negative) orientedArchitectures can be oriented around positive feedback or a mix of both positive and negative feedback. While a particular user may be able to equate fewer stars with a "negative" rating, the semantic difference is potentially important. The ability to actively rate an entity negatively may violate laws or norms that are important in the jurisdiction in which the internet property is important. The more public a site, the more important this concern may be, as noted by Goldsmith & Wu regarding eBay.
Moderated versus UnmoderatedArchitectures can also be oriented to give editorial control to a group or individual. Many email lists are worked in this fashion (e.g., Freecycle). In these situations, the architecture usually allows, but does not require that contributions be moderated. Further, moderation may take two different forms: reactive or proactive. In the reactive mode, an editor removes posts, reviews, or content that is deemed offensive after it has been placed on the site or list. In the proactive mode, an editor must review all contributions before they are made public.
In a moderated setting, credibility is often given to the moderator. However, that credibility can be damaged by appearing to edit in a heavy-handed way, whether reactive or proactive (as experienced by digg.com). In an unmoderated setting, credibility lies with the contributors alone. It should be noted that the very existence of an architecture allowing moderation may lend credibility to the forum being used (as in Howard Rheingold's examples from the WELL), or it may take away credibility (as in corporate web sites that post feedback, but edit it highly).
Business Culture

E-Business:
Subsets
Applications can be divided into three categories:
Internal business systems:
customer relationship management
enterprise resource planning
document management systems
human resources management
Enterprise communication and collaboration:
VoIP
content management system
e-mail
voice mail
Web conferencing
Digital work flows (or business process management)
electronic commerce - business-to-business electronic commerce (B2B) or business-to-consumer electronic commerce (B2C):
internet shop
supply chain management
online marketing
offline marketing
Models
When organizations go online, they have to decide which e-business models best suit their goals. A business model is defined as the organization of product, service and information flows, and the source of revenues and benefits for suppliers and customers. The concept of e-business model is the same but used in the online presence. The following is a list of the currently most adopted e-business models:
E-shops
E-commerce
E-procurement
E-malls
E-auctions
Virtual Communities
Collaboration Platforms
Third-party Marketplaces
Value-chain Integrators
Value-chain Service Providers
Information Brokerage
Telecommunication
Classification by provider and consumer
Roughly dividing the world into providers/producers and consumers/clients one can classify e-businesses into the following categories:
business-to-business (B2B)
business-to-consumer (B2C)
business-to-employee (B2E)
business-to-government (B2G)
government-to-business (G2B)
government-to-government (G2G)
government-to-citizen (G2C)
consumer-to-consumer (C2C)
consumer-to-business (C2B)
Types of Internet Connections (Modes of connecting to the internet)

Technology is developing rapidly and methods for connecting to the Internet change almost daily. In the Ithaca area, the following types of connections are most commonly available:
1. Cable: a cable data connection transfers information from the Internet to your computer and from your computer to the network, through your cable television connection. Cable connections provide high speeds of data transfer downstream, from the Internet to your computer, but are slower when sending data from your computer to the network. Additionally, the number of subscribers online affects transfer rates simultaneously. All connections originate on one line per street, so signals degrade as more subscribers come online. Cable connections can be used by individual subscribers to connect one computer to one line, or can be used to connect multiple computers in a building to the Internet.
2. Dial-up: data is transmitted through an analog phone connection. You connect to the Internet by using your phone line to dial into an ISP’s line. An analog connection is the slowest type of connection available, and will not permit you to use your telephone for a voice connection at the same time that you are connected to the Internet. Dial-up connections allow only one computer at a time, per line, to be connected. Cornell offers the EZ-Remote dial-up service.
3. Direct connection: Cornell Information Technologies (CIT) can provide a direct connection depending on your location. In locations where CIT can provide service, the connection is made via fiber optic cabling from the site to the Cornell University network backbone and then to CIT installed, owned and maintained network electronics. Connections are typically 10 Mbps or 100 Mbps; however, Gigabit connections are available at an additional cost.
4. DSL (Digital Subscriber Line): DSL and its variations (such as ADSL - Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line), use normal phone lines to transmit and receive data digitally. Unlike a cable connection, DSL allows you exclusive use of the line – there is no signal degradation caused by other users. Like cable connections, DSL offers high-speed connectivity, and allows you to use your phone and be online at the same time. DSL can be used for individuals who want to connect one computer to one line, or for an extra investment DSL can be used to connect a building to the Internet.
5. ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network): ISDN is a slightly older technology that also provides a high-speed connection. ISDN offers connections over ordinary telephone wire, facilitating both voice and data transmission so you can maintain your connection to the Internet while placing telephone calls. ISDN can be used for individuals who need to connect one computer to one line, or can be used to connect multiple computers in a building to the Internet.
6. T1: is a digital transmission technology that uses copper wire. T1 could be used to provide data service to an entire building, and data wiring would distribute the service throughout the building. T1 is the technology used on the Cornell campus. A T1 connection requires a substantial investment and because of this, may not be the most desirable means of connecting your house.
7. Wireless: is a high-speed technology that transmits data over radio waves. Wireless transmission can be used to provide connectivity from an ISP to an entire building, however, service will be dependent on the existence of a clear line of sight between the ISP and the building. Within a building, a wireless local area network (LAN) can connect multiple computers to each other and to the Internet. Wireless is a technology that is continually developing.
Internet service provider

Internet service provider (ISP, also called Internet access provider or IAP) is a company that offers their customers access to the Internet. The ISP connects to its customers using a data transmission technology appropriate for delivering Internet Protocol datagrams, such as dial-up, DSL, cable modem or dedicated high-speed interconnects.
ISPs may provide Internet e-mail accounts to users which allow them to communicate with one another by sending and receiving electronic messages through their ISPs' servers. ISPs may provide other services such as remotely storing data files on behalf of their customers, as well as other services unique to each particular ISP.
End-User-to-ISP Connection
ISPs employ a range of technologies to enable consumers to connect to their network.
For home users and small businesses, the most popular options include dial-up, DSL (typically Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line, ADSL), broadband wireless, cable modem, fiber to the premises (FTTH), and Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) (typically basic rate interface).
For customers with more demanding requirements, such as medium-to-large businesses, or other ISPs, DSL (often SHDSL or ADSL), Ethernet, Metro Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, Frame Relay, ISDN (BRI or PRI), ATM, satellite Internet access and synchronous optical networking (SONET) are more likely to be used.
With the increasing popularity of downloading music and online video and the general demand for faster page loads, higher bandwidth connections are becoming more popular.[citation needed]
Typical home user connection
DSL
Broadband wireless access
Cable Internet
ISDN
WiFi
1. DSL, is a family of technologies that provides digital data transmission over the wires of a local telephone network. DSL originally stood for digital subscriber loop, although in recent years, the term digital subscriber line has been widely adopted as a more marketing-friendly term for ADSL, which is the most popular version of consumer-ready DSL. DSL can be used at the same time and on the same telephone line with regular telephone, as it uses high frequency, while regular telephone uses low frequency.
Typically, the download speed of consumer DSL services ranges from 256 kilobits per second (kbit/s) to 24,000 kbit/s, depending on DSL technology, line conditions and service level implemented. Typically, upload speed is lower than download speed for Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) and equal to download speed for the rarer Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL).
2. Wireless Broadband is a fairly new technology that provides high-speed wireless internet and data network access over a wide area.
According to the 802.16-2004 standard, broadband means 'having instantaneous bandwidth greater than around 1 MHz and supporting data rates greater than about 1.5 Mbit/s. This means that Wireless Broadband features speeds roughly equivalent to wired broadband access, such as that of ADSL or a cable modem.
3. In telecommunications, cable Internet is a form of broadband Internet access that uses the cable television infrastructure.
Like digital subscriber lines and fiber optic networks, cable Internet bridges the last kilometre or mile from the Internet provider to the subscriber. It is layered on top of the existing cable television network infrastructure; just as DSL uses the existing telephone network. Cable networks and telephone networks are the two predominant forms of residential Internet access. Recently, both have seen increased competition from fiber deployments, wireless, and mobile networks.
4. Integrated Services Digital Network(ISDN) is a telephone system network. Prior to the ISDN, the phone system was viewed as a way to transport voice, with some special services available for data. The key feature of the ISDN is that it integrates speech and data on the same lines, adding features that were not available in the classic telephone system. There are several kinds of access interfaces to the ISDN defined: Basic Rate Interface (BRI), Primary Rate Interface (PRI) and Broadband-ISDN (B-ISDN).
ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, that also provides access to packet switched networks, designed to allow digital transmission of voice and data over ordinary telephone copper wires, resulting in better voice quality than an analog phone. ISDN B-channels can be bonded to achieve a greater data rate, typically 3 or 4 BRIs (6 to 8 64 kbit/s channels) are bonded.
5. Wi-Fi is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance, founded in 1999 as WECA (Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance). The organisation comprises more than 300 companies, whose products are certified by the Wi-Fi Alliance, based on the IEEE 802.11 standards (also called WLAN (Wireless LAN) and Wi-Fi). This certification warrants interoperability between different wireless devices.
A Wi-Fi enabled device such as a PC, game console, mobile phone, MP3 player or PDA can connect to the Internet when within range of a wireless network connected to the Internet. Wi-Fi technology has served to set up mesh networks.

Typical business type connection
DSL
SHDSL
Ethernet technologies
· Single-pair High-speed Digital Subscriber Line (SHDSL) is a form of DSL, a data communications technology that enables faster data transmission over copper telephone lines than a conventional voiceband modem can provide. Compared to ADSL, SHDSL employs frequencies that include those used by traditional POTS (Plain old telephone service) telephone services to provide equal transmit and receive (i.e. symmetric) data rates. As such, a frequency splitter, or microfilter, can not be used to allow a telephone line to be shared by both an SHDSL service and a POTS service at the same time. Support of symmetric data rates has made SHDSL a popular choice by businesses for PBX, VPN, web hosting and other data services.
· Ethernet is a family of frame-based computer networking technologies for local area networks (LANs). The name comes from the physical concept of the ether(medium that carries light). It defines a number of wiring and signaling standards for the Physical Layer of the OSI networking model, through means of network access at the Media Access Control (MAC) /Data Link Layer, and a common addressing format.
Ethernet is standardized as IEEE 802.3. The combination of the twisted pair versions of Ethernet for connecting end systems to the network, along with the fiber optic versions for site backbones, is the most widespread wired LAN technology. It has been in use from around 1980[1] to the present, largely replacing competing LAN standards such as token ring, FDDI, and ARCNET.

ISP Interconnection
Just as their customers pay them for Internet access, ISPs themselves pay upstream ISPs for Internet access. An upstream ISP usually has a larger network than the contracting ISP and/or is able to provide the contracting ISP with access to parts of the Internet the contracting ISP by itself has no access to.
In the simplest case, a single connection is established to an upstream ISP and is used to transmit data to or from areas of the Internet beyond the home network; this mode of interconnection is often cascaded multiple times until reaching a Tier 1 carrier. In reality, the situation is often more complex. ISPs with more than one point of presence (PoP) may have separate connections to an upstream ISP at multiple PoPs, or they may be customers of multiple upstream ISPs and may have connections to each one of them at one or more point of presence.

Services provided by ISP’s:
1. Broadband Internet access
· Fixed wireless access
· Cable
· Triple play
2. Internet hosting service
· Web hosting service
· E-mail hosting service
· DNS hosting service
3. Dynamic DNS
1. Broadband Internet access, often shortened to just broadband, is high data rate Internet access—typically contrasted with dial-up access over a modem.
Dial-up modems are generally only capable of a maximum bitrate of 56 kbit/s (kilobits per second) and require the full use of a telephone line—whereas broadband technologies supply at least double this bandwidth and generally without disrupting telephone use.
Technology used:
The standard broadband technologies in most areas are DSL and cable modems. Newer technologies in use include VDSL(Very High Bitrate DSL) and pushing optical fiber connections closer to the subscriber in both telephone and cable plants. Fiber-optic communication, while only recently being used in fiber to the premises and fiber to the curb schemes, has played a crucial role in enabling Broadband Internet access by making transmission of information over larger distances much more cost-effective than copper wire technology. In a few areas not served by cable or ADSL, community organizations have begun to install Wi-Fi networks, and in some cities and towns local governments are installing municipal Wi-Fi networks.
Broadband implementations and standards
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), digital data transmission over the wires used in the local loop of a telephone network
Local Multipoint Distribution Service, broadband wireless access technology that uses microwave signals operating between the 26 GHz and 29 GHz bands
WiMAX, a standards-based wireless technology that provides high-throughput broadband connections over long distances
Satellite Internet access
Cable modem, designed to modulate a data signal over cable television infrastructure
Fiber to the premises, based on fiber-optic cables and associated optical electronics
High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA), a new mobile telephony protocol, sometimes referred to as a 3.5G (or "3½G") technology
Evolution-Data Optimized (EVDO), is a wireless radio broadband data standard adopted by many CDMA mobile phone service providers
2. An Internet hosting service is a service that runs Internet servers, allowing organizations and individuals to serve content to the Internet. There are various levels of service and various kinds of services offered.
A common kind of hosting is web hosting. Most hosting providers offer a combined variety of services. Web hosting services also offer e-mail hosting service, for example. DNS hosting service is usually bundled with domain name registration.
Following are some Internet hosting services:
· Web hosting service is a type of Internet hosting service that allows individuals and organizations to provide their own website accessible via the World Wide Web. Web hosts are companies that provide space on a server they own for use by their clients as well as providing Internet connectivity, typically in a data center. Web hosts can also provide data center space and connectivity to the Internet for servers they do not own to be located in their data center, called colocation.
· An email hosting service is an Internet hosting service that runs email servers.
Email hosting services usually offer premium email at a cost as opposed to advertising supported free email or free webmail.
Email hosting services thus differ from typical end-user email providers such as webmail sites. They cater mostly to demanding email users and Small and Mid Size (SME) businesses, while larger enterprises usually run their own email hosting service. Email hosting providers allow for premium email services along with custom configurations and large number of accounts. In addition, hosting providers manage user's own domain name, including any email authentication scheme that the domain owner wishes to enforce in order to convey the meaning that using a specific domain name identifies and qualifies email senders.
· A DNS hosting service is a service that runs Domain Name System servers. Most, but not all, domain name registrars include DNS hosting service with registration. Free DNS hosting services also exist. Almost all DNS hosting services are "shared"; except for the most popular Internet sites, there is no need to dedicate a server to hosting DNS for a single website. Many third-party DNS hosting services provide Dynamic DNS.
DNS hosting service is better when the provider has multiple servers in various geographic locations that minimize latency for clients around the world.
DNS can also be self-hosted by running DNS software on generic Internet hosting services.
3. Dynamic DNS is a method, protocol, or network service that provides the capability for a networked device using the Internet Protocol Suite, such as an IP router or computer system, to notify a domain name server to change, in real time (ad-hoc) the active DNS configuration of its configured hostnames, addresses or other information stored in DNS.
numerous providers, called Dynamic DNS service providers, offer such technology and services on the Internet. They provide a software client program that automates this function. The client program is executed on a computer or device in the private network. It connects to the service provider's systems and causes those systems to link the discovered public IP address of the home network with a hostname in the domain name system. Depending on the provider, the hostname is registered within a domain owned by the provider or the customer's own domain name. These services can function by a number of mechanisms. Often they use an HTTP service request since even restrictive environments usually allow HTTP service. This group of services is commonly also referred to by the term Dynamic DNS, although it is not the standards-based DNS Update method. However, the latter might be involved in the providers systems.

ISPs having all-India license include:
BSNL
CMC
RPG Infotech
Essel Shyam Communications
Sify
Siti Cable Network
Gateway Systems (India)
World Phone Internet Services
VSNL
Guj Info Petro
Hughes Escorts Communications
Astro India Networks
Reliance
Primus Telecommunications India
ERNET India
RailTel Corporation
Data Infosys
GTL
Jumpp India
L&T Finance
HCL Infinet
Primenet Global
Tata Internet Services
Tata Power Broadband
Bharti Infotel
Pacific Internet India
In2Cable (India)
Reliance Engineering Associates
BG Broad India
Swiftmail Communications
Estel Communication
Bharti Aquanet
Trak Online Net India
Spectra Net
Reach Network India
i2i Enterprise
Tata Teleservices (Maharashtra)
Comsat Max
Gujarat Narmada Valley Fertilizers Corporation
HCL Comnet Systems and Services
Harthway Cable

Internet Addressing

Each computer on the Internet has a numerical address, called an IP address. Because the numbers are hard to remember, popular servers on the Internet have names associated with their numbers. These names are known as domain names.
There are several parts to an internet name:
Top Level Domain (TLD)
This is the last part of the name. It can be .com for companies, .org for non profit organizations, .net for network infrastructure providers, .edu for educational institutions, .mil for military, .gov for government, or a code for a country, for example, .us for United States or .jp for Japan.
Domain Name
This is the middle part of the name and often the most important. It is specific to the company / organization. Example: google, yahoo, onion.
Host Name
This is the name of the server within the company, usually named after the service provided. Example: www, ftp, news, mail.
Method/Scheme
This is the method used for the communication. It is usually a few letters followed by a colon and two forward slashes. Example: http:// for web connections, ftp:// for ftp connections.
So a complete example is:
http://people.yahoo.com
In the above example,
· http:// is the scheme indicating that this is a web connection.
· people is the server name, indicating something to do with people (in this case, finding them).
· yahoo is the domain name, indicating that this people searching functionality is provided by the company Yahoo!.
· com is the top level domain, indicating that Yahoo! is a company.

IP Addresses

An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical identification (logical address) that is assigned to devices participating in a computer network utilizing the Internet Protocol for communication between its nodes.

Format:

An IP address is made up of four bytes of information (totaling 32 bits) expressed as four numbers between 0 and 255 shown separated by periods. For example, your computer's IP address might be 238.17.159.4, which is shown below in human-readable decimal form and in the binary form used on the Internet.

Example IP Address
Decimal:
238 . 17 . 159 . 4
Binary:
11101110 00010001 10011111 00000100
Each of the four numbers uses eight bits of storage, and so can represent any of the 256 numbers in the range between zero (binary 00000000) and 255 (binary 11111111). Therefore, there are more than 4 billion possible different IP addresses in all:
4,294,967,296 = 256 * 256 * 256 * 256

Private And Public IP Addresses

A computer on the Internet is identified by its IP address. In order to avoid address conflicts, IP addresses are publicly registered with the Network Information Centre (NIC). Computers on private TCP/IP LANs however do not need public addresses, since they do not need to be accessed by the public. For this reason, the NIC has reserved certain addresses that will never be registered publicly. These are known as private IP addresses, and are found in the following ranges:
From 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255From 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255From 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255

Classes of IP addresses
The four octets that make up an IP address are conventionally represented by a, b, c, and d respectively. The following table shows how the octets are distributed in classes A, B, and C.
Class
IP Address
Network ID
Host ID
A
a.b.c.d
a
b.c.d
B
a.b.c.d
a.b
c.d
C
a.b.c.d
a.b.c
D
D
a.b.c.d
Multicast Addresses
E
a.b.c.d
Reserved for future use

Class A - 0nnnnnnn hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh
· First bit 0; 7 network bits; 24 host bits
· Initial byte: 0 - 127
· 126 Class As exist (0 and 127 are reserved)
· 16,777,214 hosts on each Class A
Class B - 10nnnnnn nnnnnnnn hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh
· First two bits 10; 14 network bits; 16 host bits
· Initial byte: 128 - 191
· 16,384 Class Bs exist
· 65,532 hosts on each Class B
Class C - 110nnnnn nnnnnnnn nnnnnnnn hhhhhhhh
· First three bits 110; 21 network bits; 8 host bits
· Initial byte: 192 - 223
· 2,097,152 Class Cs exist
· 254 hosts on each Class C
Class D - 1110mmmm mmmmmmmm mmmmmmmm mmmmmmmm
· First four bits 1110; 28 multicast address bits
· Initial byte: 224 - 247
· Class Ds are multicast addresses
Class E - 1111rrrr rrrrrrrr rrrrrrrr rrrrrrrr
· First four bits 1111; 28 reserved address bits
· Initial byte: 248 - 255
· Reserved for experimental use
IP versions
The Internet Protocol (IP) has two versions currently in. Each version has its own definition of an IP address. Because of its prevalence, "IP address" typically refers to those defined by IPv4.
1. IP version 4 addresses( IPv4)
IPv4 uses 32-bit (4-byte) addresses, which limits the address space to 4,294,967,296 (232) possible unique addresses. However, IPv4 reserves some addresses for special purposes such as private networks (~18 million addresses) or multicast addresses (~270 million addresses). This reduces the number of addresses that can be allocated as public Internet addresses, and as the number of addresses available is consumed, an IPv4 address shortage appears to be inevitable in the long run. This limitation has helped stimulate the push towards IPv6, which is currently in the early stages of deployment and is currently the only offering to replace IPv4.
IPv4 addresses are usually represented in dotted-decimal notation (four numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots, e.g. 208.77.188.166). Each part represents 8 bits of the address, and is therefore called an octet. It is possible, although less common, to write IPv4 addresses in binary or hexadecimal. When converting, each octet is treated as a separate number. (So 255.255.0.0 in dot-decimal would be FF.FF.00.00 in hexadecimal.)
IPv4 networks
IP address as a structure of network number and host number.
The highest order octet (most significant eight bits) were designating the network number, and the rest of the bits were called the rest field or host identifier and used for host numbering within a network.
This method soon proved inadequate as local area networks developed that were not part of the larger networks already designated by a network number. In 1981, the Internet addressing specification was revised with the introduction of classful network architecture. [2]
Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual assignments. The first three bits of the most significant octet of an IP address was defined as the "class" of the address, instead of just the network number and, depending on the class derived, the network designation was based on octet boundary segments of the entire address. The following table gives an overview of this system.
Class
First octet in binary
Range of first octet
Network ID
Host ID
Possible number of networks
Possible number of hosts
A
0XXXXXXX
0 - 127
a
b.c.d
128 = (27)
16,777,214 = (224 - 2)
B
10XXXXXX
128 - 191
a.b
c.d
16,384 = (214)
65,534 = (216 - 2)
C
110XXXXX
192 - 223
a.b.c
d
2,097,152 = (221)
254 = (28 - 2)
IPv4 private addresses
Computers not connected to the Internet, such as factory machines that communicate only with each other via TCP/IP, need not have globally-unique IP addresses. Three ranges of IPv4 addresses for private networks, one range for each class (A, B, C). These addresses are not routed on the Internet, and thus need not be coordinated with an IP address registry.
IANA Reserved Private Network Ranges
Start of range
End of range
Total addresses
24-bit Block (/8 prefix, 1 x A)
10.0.0.0
10.255.255.255
16,777,216
20-bit Block (/12 prefix, 16 x B)
172.16.0.0
172.31.255.255
1,048,576
16-bit Block (/16 prefix, 256 x C)
192.168.0.0
192.168.255.255
65,536
Any user may use any block. Typically, a network administrator will divide a block into subnets; for example, many home routers automatically use a default address range of 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.0.255 (192.168.0.0/24).
IPv4 address depletion
The IP version 4 address space is rapidly nearing exhaustion of available, officially assignable address blocks.
2. IP version 6 addresses( IPv6)
The rapid exhaustion of IPv4 address space, despite conservation techniques, prompted the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to explore new technologies to expand the Internet's addressing capability. The permanent solution was deemed to be a redesign of the Internet Protocol itself. This next generation of the Internet Protocol, aimed to replace IPv4 on the Internet, was eventually named Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6). The address size was increased from 32 to 128 bits (16 bytes), which, even with a generous assignment of network blocks, is deemed sufficient for the foreseeable future. Mathematically, the new address space provides the potential for a maximum of 2128, or about 3.403 × 1038 unique addresses.
Example of an IPv6 address:2001:0db8:85a3:08d3:1319:8a2e:0370:7334

IP subnetworks

The technique of subnetting can operate in both IPv4 and IPv6 networks. The IP address is divided into two parts: the network address and the host identifier. The subnet mask (in IPv4 only) or the CIDR prefix determine how the IP address is divided into network and host parts.
The term subnet mask is only used within IPv4. Both IP versions however use the Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) concept and notation. In this, the IP address is followed by a slash and the number (in decimal) of bits used for the network part, also called the routing prefix. For example, an IPv4 address and its subnet mask may be 192.0.2.1 and 255.255.255.0, respectively. The CIDR notation for the same IP address and subnet is 192.0.2.1/24, because the first 24 bits of the IP address indicate the network and subnet.
Static and dynamic IP addresses
When a computer is configured to use the same IP address each time it powers up, this is known as a Static IP address. In contrast, in situations when the computer's IP address is assigned automatically, it is known as a Dynamic IP address.
Method of assignment
Static IP addresses are manually assigned to a computer by an administrator. The exact procedure varies according to platform. This contrasts with dynamic IP addresses, which are assigned either randomly, or assigned by a server using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). Even though IP addresses assigned using DHCP may stay the same for long periods of time, they can generally change. In some cases, a network administrator may implement dynamically assigned static IP addresses. In this case, a DHCP server is used, but it is specifically configured to always assign the same IP address to a particular computer, and never to assign that IP address to another computer. This allows static IP addresses to be configured in one place, without having to specifically configure each computer on the network in a different way.
In the absence of both an administrator (to assign a static IP address) and a DHCP server, the operating system may assign itself an IP address using state-less autoconfiguration methods. These IP addresses, known as link-local addresses, default to the 169.254.0.0/16 address range in IPv4.
In IPv6, every interface, whether using static or dynamic address assignments, also receives a local-link address automatically in the fe80::/64 subnet.
Advantage of using dynamic addressing
Dynamic IP addresses are most frequently assigned on LANs and broadband networks by Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) servers. They are used because it avoids the administrative burden of assigning specific static addresses to each device on a network. It also allows many devices to share limited address space on a network if only some of them will be online at a particular time. In most current desktop operating systems, dynamic IP configuration is enabled by default so that a user does not need to manually enter any settings to connect to a network with a DHCP server. DHCP is not the only technology used to assigning dynamic IP addresses. Dialup and some broadband networks use dynamic address features of the Point-to-Point Protocol.

Domain names

The most basic functionality of a domain name is to provide symbolic representations, i.e., recognizable names, to mostly numerically addressed Internet resources. This abstraction allows any resource (e.g., website) to be moved to a different physical location in the address topology of the network, globally or locally in an intranet, in effect changing the IP address. This translation from domain names to IP addresses (and vice versa) is accomplished with the global facilities of Domain Name System (DNS).
Examples
The following example illustrates the difference between a URL (Uniform Resource Locator) and a domain name:
URL: http://www.example.net/index.html
Domain name: www.example.net
Registered domain name: example.net
virtual hosting
As a general rule, the IP address and the server name are interchangeable. For most Internet services, the server will not have any way to know which was used. However, the explosion of interest in the Web means that there are far more Web sites than servers. To accommodate this, the hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) specifies that the client tells the server which name is being used. This way, one server with one IP address can provide different sites for different domain names. This feature goes under the name virtual hosting and is commonly used by Web hosts.
For example, as referenced in RFC 2606 (Reserved Top Level DNS Names), the server at IP address 208.77.188.166 handles all of the following sites:
example.com
www.example.com
example.net
www.example.net
example.org
www.example.org
When a request is made, the data corresponding to the hostname requested is provided to the user.

Top-level domains
Every domain name ends in a top-level domain (TLD) name, which is always either one of a small list of generic names (three or more characters), or a two-character territory code. Top-level domains are sometimes also called first-level domains.
Following typre of TLDs are there:
1. Country code top-level domain (ccTLD)
2. Generic top-level domain (gTLD)
1. A country code top-level domain (ccTLD) is an Internet top-level domain generally used or reserved for a country or a dependent territory.
All ccTLD identifiers are two letters long, and all two-letter top-level domains are ccTLDs. Creation and delegation of ccTLDs is performed by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).
Examples:
.ae – United Arab Emirates
.at – Austria *
.au – Australia
.be – Belgium *
.br – Brazil *
.ca – Canada
.cy – Cyprus
.de – Germany
.fr – France
.it – Italy
.jp – Japan
.lk – Sri Lanka
.mu – Mauritius *
.mv – Maldives
.mx – Mexico *
.my – Malaysia
.ng – Nigeria
.nl – Netherlands *
.nz – New Zealand *
.pk – Pakistan *
.sa – Saudi Arabia
.th – Thailand *
.us – United States *
.za – South Africa *
.zw – Zimbabwe

2. A generic top-level domain (gTLD) is one of the categories of top-level domains (TLDs) maintained by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) for use on the Internet.

gTLD
Entity
.aero
air-transport industry
.asia
Asia-Pacific region
.biz
business
.cat
Catalan
.com
commercial
.coop
cooperatives
.edu
educational
.gov
governmental
.info
information
.int
international organizations
.jobs
companies
.mil
U.S. military
.mobi
mobile devices
.museum
museums
.name
individuals, by name
.net
network
.org
organization
.pro
professions
.tel
Internet communication services
.travel
travel and tourism industry related sites

Domain aftermarket prices and trends
Domain name sales occurring in the aftermarket are frequently submitted to the DN journal. The sales are listed weekly and include the top aftermarket resellers which include but are not limited to Sedo, Traffic (auctions), Afternic, NameJet, Moniker and private sales.
To date, and according to Guinness World Records and MSNBC, the most expensive domain name sales on record as of 2004 were[3]:
Business.com for $7.5 million in December 1999
AsSeenOnTv.com for $5.1 million in January 2000
Altavista.com for $3.3 million in August 1998
Wine.com for $2.9 million in September 1999
CreditCards.com for $2.75 million in July 2004
Autos.com for $2.2 million in December 1999
The week ending January 27, 2008, DNJournal reported that CNN, a cable news channel purchased iReport.com for $750,000. This signifies another turning point in domain name sales. This name has neither organic traffic, nor does it have a dictionary term alone. Instead it is a highly brandable domain name utilizing the second most popular prefix for a "dictionary" and commercial word.

Communication software

Communication software is used to provide remote access to systems and exchange files and real-time messages in text, audio and/or video formats between different computers or user IDs. This includes terminal emulators, file transfer programs, chat and instant messaging programs, as well as similar functionality integrated within MUDs.
In computer gaming, a MUD (Multi-User Dungeon), pronounced /mʌd/, is a multi-user real-time virtual world described entirely in text. It combines elements of role-playing games, hack and slash, interactive fiction, and online chat. Players can read descriptions of rooms, objects, other players, non-player characters, and actions performed in the virtual world. Players interact with each other and the world by typing commands that resemble a natural language.
Traditional MUDs implement a fantasy world populated by fictional races and monsters, with players being able to choose from a number of classes in order to gain specific skills or powers. The object of this sort of game is to slay monsters, explore a fantasy world, complete quests, go on adventures, create a story by roleplaying, and advance the created character. Many MUDs were fashioned around the dice rolling rules of the Dungeons & Dragons series of games.

INTERNET TOOLS

NETWORK INFORMATION RETRIEVAL (NIR) TOOLS
Utilities
Finger
Definition: Finger retrieves information about user registered on a host computer.
Netfind
Definition: Netfind is a research prototype that provides a simple Internet `white pages' user directory.
Nslookup
Definition: Nslookup is an interactive program to query Internet domain name servers (gives IP address).
Ping
Definition: Ping requests echo from network host; see if remote host is up.
WHOIS
Definition: WHOIS provides info on registered network names.
X.500
Definition: X.500 (OSI Directory Service) provides globally distributed directory service.
Tools
Archie
Definition: Archie locates files at anonymous FTP sites by filename search.
Astra
Definition: Astra retrieve documents from databases.
Bitftp
Definition: Bitftp allows the user to use electronic mail to obtain files at an ftp site via email.
Essence
Definition: Essence is a resource discovery system using indexes.
File Service Protocol (FSP)
Definition: FSP is a conectionaless protocol for transferring files.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Definition: FTP retrieves or puts copies of files at remote FTP sites.
Knowbot
Definition: Knowbot provides a uniform interface to heterogeneous remote directory services.
Netserv
Definition: Netserv is a server for access to data files and programs of general interest.
Soft Pages
Definition: Soft Pages aids in retrieval of documents, software, and other resources from servers.
Telnet
Definition: Telnet allows a user to login to a remote computer to use applications.
Veronica
Definition: Veronica locates titles of Gopher items by keyword search.
Systems
Alex
Definition: Alex provides transparent read of remote files at anonymous FTP sites.
Gopher
Definition: Gopher locates and retrieves resources using a graph of menus.
Moo Gopher
Definition: Moo Gopher is a MUD-based gopher interface.
Wide Area Information Server (WAIS)
Definition: WAIS retrieves resources by searching indexes of databases.
World Wide Web (WWW)
Definition: WWW retrieves resources by hyptertext browser of databases.
Interfaces
Lists
For a longer list of World Wide Web broswers, see:
Cello
Definition: Cello is a DOS-based Internet browser incorporating WWW, Gopher, FTP, Telnet, News.
Emacs World Wide Web Browser
Definition: Emacs WWW browser is a means to access the World Wide Web.
Lynx
Definition: Lynx is an ASCII terminal browser for the World Wide Web.
Samba
Definition: Samba is a Macintosh browser for the World Wide Web.
Viola
Definition: Viola is a World Wide Web hypermedia browser for X Window System.
COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION (CMC) FORUMS
Interpersonal
Email
Definition: Email allows a user to send message(s) to another user (or many users via mailing lists).
Talk
Definition: Talk provides real-time interactive text with another user.
Group
Clover
Definition: Clover is a real-time text-based group conferencing system.
Collage
Definition: Collage is a client/server group collaboration system which includes shared dialogue, text, and graphics spaces, from NCSA.
CU-SeeMe
Definition: CU-SeeMe is a real-time, multiparty video-conferencing system for the Internet.
Listproc
Defintion: Listproc is a system that automates mailing lists and archives.
LISTSERV
Definition: LISTSERV is mailing-list server for group communication.
Majordomo
Definition: Majordomo is a mailing list manager.
Moo
Definition: A Moo is an object-oriented Multiple User Dialogue (MUD).
Multiple-User Dialogue (MUD)
Definition: MUDs are real-time interaction usually for social role-playing. Note: Variants include MUCK, MUSH, MUSE, MOO.
Procmail
Definition: Procmail is a mail manager--create mail-servers, mailing lists, sort your incoming mail.
Mass
Interactive Webbing (IW)
Definition: Interactive Webbing gives people a common space for network distributed multimedia writing.
Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
Definition: IRC provides real-time, many-many text discussion divided into channels.
Internet Talk Radio (ITR)
Definition: ITR is an audio multicast on the Internet.
Mbone
Definition: Mbone is a live audio and video multicast virtual network on top of Internet.
Usenet
Definition: USENET provides asynchronous text discussion on many topics separated into newsgroups.

electronic-mail(unit-1)

2010-03-29T01:57:00.000-07:00

UNIT – 1 Electronic-Mail

Introduction

E-mail stands for electronic mail which is the transmission of messages over communications networks. The messages can be notes entered from the keyboard or electronic files stored on disk.
Some electronic-mail systems are limited to a single computer system or network, but others have gateways to other computer systems, enabling users to send electronic mail anywhere in the world. Companies that are fully computerized make extensive use of e-mail because it is fast, flexible, and reliable.
Most e-mail systems include a simple text editor for composing messages, but many allow you to edit your messages using any editor you want. You then send the message to the recipient by specifying the recipient's address. You can also send the same message to several users at once. This is called broadcasting.
ORIGIN of E-mail:
The ARPANET computer network made a large contribution to the development of e-mail. There is one report that indicates experimental inter-system e-mail transfers began shortly after its creation in 1969. Ray Tomlinson initiated the use of the @ sign to separate the names of the user and their machine in 1971. The ARPANET significantly increased the popularity of e-mail, and it became the killer app of the ARPANET.

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages of E-mail:
Email is Fast
Mail is delivered instantly...from your office to anywhere in the world. No other method of delivery can provide this service. Timely buying and selling decisions can be made in a heartbeat.
2. Email is Inexpensive
Compared to telephone calls, faxes, or over night courier service, Email is less expensive.
3. Managing Email is Easy
You can manage all your correspondence on screen and so can your customers. Your proposal can be answered, revised, stored, and sent to others, all without reams of paper involved.

4. Email is Easy to Filter
The subject line on an Email makes it easy to prioritize messages. The reader can identify ritical correspondence quickly and dealt with it immediately. Unlike regular mail which needs to be opened and reviewed, or voice mail which requires you to either listen to or scan all your messages for those that require immediate attention.
5. Transmission is Secure and Reliable
The level of security in transmitting Email messages is very high, and the industry continues to strive to develop even tighter security levels. Email is private. Often telephone and fax messages are not. If the address information is correct, rarely does an Email go astray. Fax machines can be out of order or out of paper and this prevents an important message from being delivered in a timely manner.

Disadvantages to using e-mail:
Lack of security, particularly with regards to Web-based e-mail and shared computers.
Informal method of communication. Not always suitable for serious business documents or transactions requiring signatures.
Due to its informal nature it is easy to ignore - unlike communication on the telephone or mail.
Spam. Unsolicited junk mail is easier to send than conventional mail and harder to trace back to the sender.
Too much e-mail can lead to management problems with your in-box being overwhelmed by mail.

User-ids, Pass words

User ID/Name: Used to identify a user. A code made up by the user that allows access to a Web site, software program, or computer. It is a name that is used to associate the user profile with a user when a user signs on to a system.

Password: It is a word or string of characters that is entered, often along with a user name/ID, into a computer system to log in or to access some resource. It is a secret word or phrase known only to a restricted group.

E-mail addresses
E-mail Address:
It is a unique identifier specifying a virtual location to which e-mail can be sent. E-mail address has three parts.
The first part is your username. You set up the username with your Internet provider or e-mail service. It might be a form of your name. It might be a nickname. If you are an antique collector, your username might be antique_ fan. It is at this point that your provider or service makes sure no one else on their system already has that name.
The second part of your e-mail address is the @ (at) symbol
The third part, which is the name of the computer that handles your mail. This computer is also called a server. Your Internet Service Provider (ISP) or e-mail service has a particular name for their server - like aol.com for America Online or yahoo.com for those who go through the Yahoo service. Hotmail.com is an example of a free web-based e-mail service
Examlpe: antique_fan@hotmail.com
Where:
Antique_fan is the user-name.
Hotmail.com is the domain name of the E-mail server.

Message Components
Components of an email message
An email message consists of the following general components:
1. Headers
The message headers contain information concerning the sender and recipients. The exact content of mail headers can differ depending on the email system that generated the message. Generally, headers contain the following information:
· Subject. This describes what a message is about. For example if you are sending a message about a schedule of an exam then it might be “Exam schedule”.
· Sender (From). This is the senders Internet email address. It is usually assumed to be the same as the Reply-to address, unless a different one is provided.
· Date and time received (On). The time the message was received.
· Reply-to. This is the Internet email address that will become the recipient of your reply if you click the Reply button.
· Recipient (To:). First/last name of email recipient, as configured by the sender.
· Recipient email address. The Internet mail address of the recipient, or where the message was actually sent.
2. Body
The body of a message contains text that is the actual content. The message body also may include signatures or automatically generated text that is inserted by the sender's email system.
3. Attachments
These are optional and include any separate files that may be part of the message.
Composing an E-Mail Message
E-mail addresses must be letter-perfect in order for your mail to reach the intended destination, and Outlook Express is rich with options for addressing messages accurately. You type a few letters of the person's name in the To or CC (for carbon copy) lines, and then Outlook Express automatically supplies the full address from your address book.
1. Click the Create Mail button.

2. In the To box, type the first few letters of your recipient's name as shown below. When Outlook Express proposes the name you want, press the Enter key.
If the name isn't in your address book, type the complete e-mail address. Capitalization doesn't matter, and there should be no spaces in the address.
3. Repeat step 2 for each person you want to send the message to, separating names with a comma or semi-colon.
4. To send copies of your e-mail, follow steps 2 and 3 above in the CC box as shown below for each person who will get a copy.
To and CC fields on a new mail message.
5. Type a brief subject for your message as shown below.
Outlook Express will remind you if you forget this.
6. Click in the message area, and type your message as shown below.
7. Click Send as shown below.
If Outlook Express asks for confirmation of any name, click the correct name in the Check Names box, and click OK.

Write an E-Mail Message, Send It Later
You can compose e-mail while your computer is disconnected from the Internet.
Follow the steps in the Composing an E-Mail Message, section above.
When you click Send, Outlook Express lets you know that it's storing your message in the Outbox—it's in the Folder list—and then sends it automatically when you go online.
Save your e-mail. Outlook Express also automatically saves messages as you write them, so if your computer shuts down unexpectedly, your messages will be waiting for you in the Drafts folder. But for extra safety, it's not a bad idea—particularly for an important message—to save your e-mail message as you write. To do this, click Save, on the File menu.

Attach a File to an E-Mail Message

It's easy to attach files to e-mail—a picture of the new baby, the paper you're coauthoring, your tax file for the accountant, or a favorite song. It's rather like paper-clipping something to a letter.
1. In your message, click the Attach button.
2. Browse until you find the file you want to attach as shown below.
3. Click the file, and then click Attach as shown below.
If you want to enclose more than one file, repeat steps 1 through 3.
4. Finish the message if you haven't already, and click the Send button.
5. The attachments show up (!) here in the message.
Insert a File to an E-Mail Message(Inline Attachments)
Email can be formatted to include the images in-line. That means part of what determines how the email is displayed is exactly what format the sender used to compose their email.
· HTML and Rich Text formatted email both allow images to be embedded/inserted within the actual message. Naturally, there are different ways to do this; for example the image can be included within the email as an attachment to be displayed within the message, or the image can be linked to from a web site. Both formats also allow images to simply be included as regular attachments without any relationship to the message body.

· Plain text email, on the other hand, only allows for images as attachments.

Personalize Your E-Mail Messages with signatures

You can put your singular stamp on e-mail. With Outlook Express you can use a distinctive personal signature.
Create a Personal Signature for All Messages
One advantage of the letterhead on business papers is that you don’t have to repeat information on every piece of correspondence. You can duplicate that advantage in e-mail by creating a special signature that doubles as letterhead and signature. Outlook can then append it automatically to new messages, or you can sign each one individually.
1. On the Outlook Express Tools menu, click Options, and then click the Signatures tab.
2. Click the New button as shown below.
3. Type your signature as you want it to appear as shown below.
4. If you want this signature on all your e-mail (except replies and forwards), check Add signatures to all outgoing messages (shown below).
5. When you're finished, click OK.Now every e-mail message you start will have this signature.
Add Your Signature to individual Messages

Although Outlook Express is smart about not adding your signature when you reply to an e-mail message or forward it, you may want more control over when your full signature is added. Maybe you've created a business-like signature, and don't want it on messages to friends and family. Or perhaps you have two signatures—one for business and one for more personal correspondence. In such situations, follow the steps below to add a signature you've already created, message by message.

1. On the Outlook Express Tools menu, click Options, and then click the Signatures tab.
2. Make sure that the Add signatures to all outgoing messages check box is clear, and click OK.
3. Compose your e-mail message.
4. To sign your message, click the Insert menu on the e-mail message, point to Signature, and then click your signature.

Mailer features

eMailer is a personalized group mailer that can be used as a powerful marketing tool to send personalized targeted mails. eMailer helps you to reach out to your customers by sending targeted mails, with each recipient receiving a personalized copy of the mail. eMailer is a powerful and fast mass mailer that can be used to manage your email campaigns.
Features are as follow:
· Personalized Mails
Personalize each mails based on any header. Each lists is mapped to a CSV file, and the mail send to that list can be personalized on any of the header present in that CSV file.
· Direct Mailing
No need to add all your customers email addresses together. Just create a subscription list, include all the subscribers, and send a single mail to that list. eMailer will in turn send that mail directly to each of the subscribers.
· No SMTP required
Don't have an SMTP server? Don't worry. eMailer can talk directly with the recipient mail server and deliver the mails.
If you have an SMTP server and want to route the mails through it, just configure eMailer. It even supports SSL mail servers.
· Unlimited Subscription Lists
Create as must subscription lists as you want. Its just a matter of importing a CSV file! You can also create any number of sender accounts.
· HTML / Plain Text Mails
Send HTML or Plain Text mails easily. eMailer contains a WYSIWYG HTML editor, which allows you to create HTML mails easily.
· Drag and Drop Attachments
Attaching a file is just a matter of drag and drop. Attach any number of files easily.
· Emoticons Support
eMailer supports a wide range of emoticons. It can be easily extended to add your own set of emoticons/smileys.
· Platform Independence
eMailer can run on any OS that supports Java like Windows, Mac, Linux, etc.
· Fast Delivery
You decide how fast it should be. eMailer is completely configurable.

E-mail inner working

Step A: Sender creates and sends an email
The originating sender creates an email in their Mail User Agent (MUA) and clicks 'Send'. The MUA is the application the originating sender uses to compose and read email, such as Eudora, Outlook, etc.

Step B: Sender's MDA/MTA routes the email
The sender's MUA transfers the email to a Mail Delivery Agent (MDA). Frequently, the sender's MTA also handles the responsibilities of an MDA. Several of the most common MTAs do this, including sendmail and qmail.
The MDA/MTA accepts the email, then routes it to local mailboxes or forwards it if it isn't locally addressed

Step C: Network Cloud
An email can encounter a network cloud within a large company or ISP, or the largest network cloud in existence: the Internet.network cloud may encompass a multitude of mail servers, DNS servers, routers, and other devices and services too numerous to mention. These devices may be protected by firewalls, spam filters and malware detection software that may bounce or even delete an email. When an email is deleted by this kind of software, it tends to fail silently, so the sender is given no information about where or when the delivery failure occurred.
Email service providers and other companies that process a large volume of email often have their own, private network clouds. These organizations commonly have multiple mail servers, and route all email through a central gateway server (i.e., mail hub) that redistributes mail to whichever MTA is available. Email on these secondary MTAs must usually wait for the primary MTA (i.e., the designated host for that domain) to become available, at which time the secondary mail server will transfer its messages to the primary MTA.

Step D: Email Queue
The email in the diagram is addressed to someone at another company, so it enters an email queue with other outgoing email messages. If there is a high volume of mail in the queue—either because there are many messages or the messages are unusually large, or both—the message will be delayed in the queue until the MTA processes the messages ahead of it.

Step E: MTA to MTA Transfer
When transferring an email, the sending MTA handles all aspects of mail delivery until the message has been either accepted or rejected by the receiving MTA.
As the email clears the queue, it enters the Internet network cloud, where it is routed along a host-to-host chain of servers. Each MTA in the Internet network cloud needs to "stop and ask directions" from the Domain Name System (DNS) in order to identify the next MTA in the delivery chain. The exact route depends partly on server availability and mostly on which MTA can be found to accept email for the domain specified in the address. Most email takes a path that is dependent on server availability, so a pair of messages originating from the same host and addressed to the same receiving host could take different paths. These days, it's mostly spammers that specify any part of the path, deliberately routing their message through a series of relay servers in an attempt to obscure the true origin of the message.
To find the recipient's IP address and mailbox, the MTA must drill down through the Domain Name System (DNS), which consists of a set of servers distributed across the Internet. Beginning with the root nameservers at the top-level domain (.tld), then domain nameservers that handle requests for domains within that .tld, and eventually to nameservers that know about the local domain.

Step F: Firewalls, Spam and Virus Filters
The transfer process described in the last step is somewhat simplified. An email may be transferred to more than one MTA within a network cloud and is likely to be passed to at least one firewall before it reaches it's destination.
An email encountering a firewall may be tested by spam and virus filters before it is allowed to pass inside the firewall. These filters test to see if the message qualifies as spam or malware. If the message contains malware, the file is usually quarantined and the sender is notified. If the message is identified as spam, it will probably be deleted without notifying the sender.
Spam is difficult to detect because it can assume so many different forms, so spam filters test on a broad set of criteria and tend to misclassify a significant number of messages as spam, particularly messages from mailing lists. When an email from a list or other automated source seems to have vanished somewhere in the network cloud, the culprit is usually a spam filter at the receiver's ISP or company. This explained in greater detail in Virus Scanning and Spam Blocking.

Delivery
In the diagram, the email makes it past the hazards of the spam trap...er...filter, and is accepted for delivery by the receiver's MTA. The MTA calls a local MDA to deliver the mail to the correct mailbox, where it will sit until it is retrieved by the recipient's MUA.

E-mail Management

Some basic E-mail management rules are:
1) Let your email program manage your email as much as possible.Email management starts with setting up and using filters. If you're using an email program such as Outlook, you can configure email rules to send your spam directly to the trash - meaning that you don't waste your time reading and deleting it.
2) Do not check your email on demand.You don't need to see every piece of email the second it arrives. If you're using an email program that announces the arrival of new email, turn off the program's announcement features, such as making a sound or having a pop-up screen announce the arrival of email. Checking email on demand can seriously interfere with whatever other tasks you're trying to accomplish because most people will read email when they check it.
3) Don't read and answer your email all day long.You may get anywhere from a handful to hundreds of emails each day that need to be answered, but they don't need to be answered immediately, interrupting whatever else you're doing. Instead, set aside a particular time each day to review and answer your email. Schedule the hour or whatever time it takes you to answer the volume of email you get, and stick to that schedule as regularly as possible.
4) Don't answer your email at your most productive time of day.Most productive work time is the morning. If you start your work day by answering your email, you lose the time that you are at my most creative. If you are writing a message, it will take twice as long to compose it in the afternoon or evening than it would in the morning, when you feel fresh and alert.
Answering email, on the other hand, isn't usually a task that calls for a great deal of creativity. So by ignoring you email until the late afternoon, and answering it then, you get the dual benefit of saving your productive time for other more demanding tasks, and not continually interrupting whatever other tasks you are trying to accomplish.
MIME Types
Why need MIME (Multipurpose internet mail extension)
The basic Internet e-mail transmission protocol, SMTP, supports only 7-bit ASCII characters. This effectively limits Internet e-mail to messages which, when transmitted, include only the characters sufficient for writing a small number of languages, primarily English. Other languages based on the Latin alphabet typically include diacritics not supported in 7-bit ASCII, meaning text in these languages cannot be correctly represented in basic e-mail..
Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) is an Internet standard that extends the format of e-mail to support:
text in character sets other than ASCII.
non-text attachments.
message bodies with multiple parts .
header information in non-ASCII character sets.
Mapping messages into and out of MIME format is typically done automatically by an e-mail client or by mail servers when sending or receiving Internet e-mail.Virtually all human-written Internet e-mail and a fairly large proportion of automated e-mail is transmitted via SMTP in MIME format. Internet e-mail is so closely associated with the SMTP and MIME standards that it is sometimes called SMTP/MIME e-mail.
The basic format of Internet (SMTP/MIME) e-mail is defined in RFC 2822
MIME Header Fields
1. MIME-Version
2. Content-Type
3. Content-Disposition
4. Content-Transfer-Encoding
5. Encoded-Word
1. MIME-Version
The presence of this header indicates the message is MIME-formatted. The value is typically "1.0" so this header appears as
It should be noted that implementers have attempted to change the version number in the past and the change had unforeseen results. It was decided at an IETF meeting to leave the version number as is even though there have been many updates and versions of MIME.
2. Content-Type
This header indicates the Internet media type of the message content, consisting of a type and subtype, for example
Through the use of the multipart type, MIME allows messages to have parts arranged in a tree structure where the leaf nodes are any non-multipart content type and the non-leaf nodes are any of a variety of multipart types. This mechanism supports:
simple text messages using text/plain (the default value for "Content-type:")
text plus attachments (multipart/mixed with a text/plain part and other non-text parts). A MIME message including an attached file generally indicates the file's original name with the "Content-disposition:" header, so the type of file is indicated both by the MIME content-type and the filename extension
reply with original attached (multipart/mixed with a text/plain part and the original message as a message/rfc822 part)
alternative content, such as a message sent in both plain text and another format such as HTML (multipart/alternative with the same content in text/plain and text/html forms)
image, audio, video and application (for example, image/jpg, audio/mp3, video/mp4, and application/msword and so on)
many other message constructs
3. Content-Disposition
The specification of content-disposition attempted to provide a means of providing file name information by defining a filename parameter as part of the content-disposition field.

4. Content-Transfer-Encoding
MIME defined a set of methods for representing binary data in ASCII text format. The content-transfer-encoding: MIME header has 2-sided significance:
It indicates whether or not a binary-to-text encoding scheme has been used on top of the original encoding as specified within the Content-Type header, and
If such a binary-to-text encoding method has been used it states which one.
Options:
7-Bit - Data is sent as US-ASC data.
8-Bit - 8 bit characters are included in short lines.
BASE64 - Used for binary files. Three bytes are transformed into 4 ASC characters in lines limited to a length of 76 characters.
Binary - Long lines are sent using 8 bit characters. These lines may not be transportable using SMTP.
Quoted-Printable - Used tor ASC text. Line length is limited to 76 characters.
X-Token - Defines private encoding values prefixed with an "X-".

5. Encoded-Word
Since message header names and values are always ASCII characters, values that contain non-ASCII data must use the MIME encoded-word syntax instead of a literal string. This syntax uses a string of ASCII characters indicating both the original character encoding and the content-transfer-encoding used to map the bytes of the charset into ASCII characters.
The form is: "=?charset?encoding?encoded text?=".
charset may be any character set registered with IANA(Internet Assigned Numbers Authority). Typically it would be the same charset as the message body.
encoding can be either "Q" denoting Q-encoding that is similar to the quoted-printable encoding, or "B" denoting base64 encoding.
encoded text is the Q-encoded or base64-encoded text.
The encoded-word format is not used for the names of the headers (for example Subject). These header names are always in English in the raw message. When viewing a message with a non-English e-mail client, the header names are usually translated by the client
Multipart messages
A MIME multipart message contains a boundary in the "Content-type:" header. This boundary, must not occur in any of the parts. It is placed between the parts, and at the beginning and end of the body of the message, as follows:
Each part consists of its own content header and a body. Multipart content can be nested. The content-transfer-encoding of a multipart type must always be "7bit", "8bit" or "binary" to avoid the complications that would be posed by multiple levels of decoding.
Multipart subtypes
The MIME standard defines various multipart-message subtypes, which specify the nature of the message parts and their relationship to one another. The subtype is specified in the "Content-Type" header of the overall message. For example, a multipart MIME message using the digest subtype would have its Content-Type set as "multipart/digest".
The following is a list of the most commonly used subtypes; it is not intended to be a comprehensive list.
1. Mixed
Multipart/mixed is used for sending files with different "Content-Type" headers inline (or as attachments). If sending pictures or other easily readable files, most mail clients will display them inline (unless otherwise specified with the "Content-disposition" header). Otherwise it will offer them as attachments. The default content-type for each part is "text/plain".
2. Message
A message/rfc822 part contains an email message, including any headers. Rfc822 is a Standard for ARPA Internet Text Messages since the message may be a full MIME message. This is used for digests as well as for E-mail forwarding.
3. Digest
Multipart/digest is a simple way to send multiple text messages. The default content-type for each part is "message/rfc822".
4. Alternative
The multipart/alternative subtype indicates that each part is an "alternative" version of the same (or similar) content, each in a different format denoted by its "Content-Type" header. Systems can then choose the "best" representation they are capable of processing; in general, this will be the last part that the system can understand.
Since a client is unlikely to want to send a version that is less faithful than the plain text version this structure places the plain text version (if present) first. This makes it easier for users of clients that do not understand multipart messages.
Most commonly multipart/alternative is used for email with two parts, one plain text (text/plain) and one HTML (text/html). The plain text part provides backwards compatibility while the HTML part allows use of formatting and hyperlinks. Most email clients offer a user option to prefer plain text over HTML, this is an example of how local factors may affect how an application chooses which "best" part of the message to display.
5. Related
A multipart/related is used to indicate that message parts should not be considered individually but rather as parts of an aggregate whole. The message consists of a root part (by default, the first) which reference other parts inline, which may in turn reference other parts. Message parts are commonly referenced by the "Content-ID" part header. The syntax of a reference is unspecified and is instead dictated by the encoding or protocol used in the part.
One common usage of this subtype is to send a web page complete with images in a single message. The root part would contain the HTML document, and use image tags to reference images stored in the latter parts.
6. Report
Multipart/report is a message type that contains data formatted for a mail server to read. It is split between a text/plain (or some other content/type easily readable) and a message/delivery-status, which contains the data formatted for the mail server to read.
7. Signed
A multipart/signed message is used to attach a digital signature to a message. It has two parts, a body part and a signature part. The whole of the body part, including mime headers, is used to create the signature part. Many signature types are possible, like application/pgp-signature and application/x-pkcs7-signature.
8. Encrypted
A multipart/encrypted message has two parts. The first part has control information that is needed to decrypt the application/octet-stream second part. Similar to signed messages, there are different implementations which are identified by their separate content types for the control part. The most common types are "application/pgp-encrypted" and "application/pkcs7-mime".
9. Form Data
As its name implies, multipart/form-data is used to express values submitted through a form. Originally defined as part of HTML 4.0, it is most commonly used for submitting files via HTTP.
10. Mixed-Replace (Experimental)
The content type multipart/x-mixed-replace was developed as part of a technology to emulate server push and streaming over HTTP.
All parts of a mixed-replace message have the same semantic meaning. However, each part invalidates - "replaces" - the previous parts as soon as it is received completely. Clients should process the individual parts as soon as they arrive and should not wait for the whole message to finish.
11. Byteranges
The multipart/byteranges is used to represent noncontiguous byte ranges of a single message. It is used by HTTP when a server returns multiple byte ranges

Newsgroups

A newsgroup is a repository usually within the Usenet system, for messages posted from many users in different locations. The term may be confusing to some, because it is usually a discussion group. Newsgroups are technically distinct from, but functionally similar to, discussion forums on the World Wide Web. Newsreader software is used to read newsgroups.
Typically, a newsgroup is focused on a particular topic. Some newsgroups allow the posting of messages on a wide variety of themes, regarding anything a member chooses to discuss as on-topic, while others keep more strictly to their particular subject, frowning on off-topic postings. The news admin (the administrator of a news server) decides how long articles are kept before being expired (deleted from the server). Usually they will be kept for one or two weeks, but some admins keep articles in local or technical newsgroups around longer than articles in other newsgroups.
Newsgroups are much like the public message boards on old bulletin board systems. For those readers not familiar with this concept, envision an electronic version of the corkboard in the entrance of your local grocery store.
Moderated and unmoderated newsgroups
A minority of newsgroups are moderated. That means that messages submitted by readers are not distributed to Usenet, but instead are emailed to the moderators of the newsgroup, for approval. Moderated newsgroups have rules called charters. Moderators are persons whose job is to ensure that messages that the readers see in newsgroups conform to the charter of the newsgroup. Typically, moderators are appointed in the proposal for the newsgroup, and changes of moderators follow a succession plan.
The job of the moderator is to receive submitted articles, review them, and inject approved articles so that they can be properly propagated worldwide. Such articles must bear the Approved: header line.
Unmoderated newsgroups form the majority of Usenet newsgroups, and messages submitted by readers for unmoderated newsgroups are immediately propagated for everyone to see.
Creation of moderated newsgroups often becomes a hot subject of controversy, raising issues regarding censorship and the desire of a subset of users to form an intentional community.
How newsgroups work:
Newsgroup servers are hosted by various organizations and institutions. Most Internet service providers (ISPs) host their own news servers, or rent access to one, for their subscribers. There are also a number of companies who sell access to premium news servers.
Every host of a news server maintains agreements with other news servers to regularly synchronize. In this way news servers form a network. When a user posts to one news server, the message is stored locally. That server then shares the message with the servers that are connected to it if both carry the newsgroup, and from those servers to servers that they are connected to, and so on. For newsgroups that are not widely carried, sometimes a carrier group is used for crossposting to aid distribution. This is typically only useful for groups that have been removed or newer alt.* groups. Crossposts between hierarchies, outside of the Big 8 and alt.* hierarchies, are failure prone. Njjh
Hierarchies:
Newsgroups are often arranged into hierarchies, theoretically making it simpler to find related groups. The term top-level hierarchy refers to the hierarchy defined by the prefix prior to the first dot.
The most commonly known hierarchies is the usenet hierarchies. So for instance newsgroup rec.arts.sf.starwars.games would be in the rec.* top-level usenet hierarchy, where the asterisk (*) is defined as a wildcard character. There were seven original major hierarchies of usenet newsgroups, known as the "Big 7":
comp.* — Discussion of computer-related topics
news.* — Discussion of Usenet itself
sci.* — Discussion of scientific subjects
rec.* — Discussion of recreational activities (e.g. games and hobbies)
soc.* — Socialising and discussion of social issues.
talk.* — Discussion of contentious issues such as religion and politics.
misc.* — Miscellaneous discussion—anything which doesn't fit in the other hierarchies.
Further hierarchies
There are a number of newsgroup hierarchies outside of the Big 8 (and alt.*) that can be found at many news servers. These include non-English language groups, groups managed by companies or organizations about their products, geographic/local hierarchies, and even non-internet network boards routed into NNTP. Examples include (alphabetically):
aus.* — Australian news groups
ba.* — Discussion in the San Francisco Bay area
ca.* — Discussion in California
can.* — Canadian news groups
cn.* — Chinese news groups
chi.* — Discussions about the Chicago area
de.* — Discussions in German
england.* — Discussions (mostly) local to England, see also uk.*
fidonet.* — Discussions routed from FidoNet
fr.* — Discussions in French
fj.* — "From Japan," discussions in Japanese
gnu.* — Discussions about GNU software
hawaii.* — Discussions (mostly) local to Hawaii
harvard.* — Discussions (mostly) local to Harvard
hp.* — Hewlett-Packard internal news groups
it.* — Discussions in Italian
microsoft.* — Discussions about Microsoft products
pl.* — Polish news groups
tw.* — Taiwan news groups
uk.* — Discussions on matters in the UK
Additionally, there is the free.* hierarchy, which can be considered "more alt than alt.*". There are many local sub-hierarchies within this hierarchy, usually for specific countries or cultures (such as free.it.* for Italy).

Subscibing to a newsgroup
Before you can subscribe to Internet newsgroups, you must configure Outlook Express for Internet news.
Configuring Outlook Express for Internet news
Outlook Express 4.x0
1. In Outlook Express, click Accounts on the Tools menu.
2. In the Internet Accounts dialog box, click Add, and then click News.
3. In the Display Name box, type the name you want other people to see when you post a message, and then click Next.
4. In the E-mail Address box, type the e-mail address for the account you are using (for example, janedoe@account.com), and then click Next.
5. In the News (NNTP) Server box, type the name of your Internet news server. If you are required to log on, click the My news server requires me to log on check box to select it. Click Next.
6. If you are required to log on, type your account name and password for your news server in the News Account Name and Password boxes, or click Log on using Secure Password Authentication (SPA). Choose the method recommended by your ISP. MSN requires SPA when when using the netnews.msn.com MSN news server.
7. In the Internet News Account Name, type a name that identifies the news account you are configuring (this is the "friendly" name for the news account), and then click Next.
8. Click the connection type that you use to connect to the Internet, and then click Next.
9. If you click Use my phone line to connect, you are prompted to either create a new Dial-Up Networking connection or use an existing one. If Dial-Up Networking has been configured for your ISP, click Use an existing dial-up connection, click the name for your Dial-Up Networking connection in the list, and then click Next.
10. If you click Connect using my local area network (LAN) or I will establish my Internet connection manually, you are not prompted for any additional settings.
11. Click Finish.

Outlook Express 5
1. In Outlook Express, click Accounts on the Tools menu.
2. In the Internet Accounts dialog box, click Add, and then click News.
3. In the Display Name box, type a friendly name for the newsgroup, and then click Next.
4. In the E-mail Address box, type the e-mail address for the account you are using (for example, janedoe@account.com), and then click Next.
5. In the News (NNTP) Server box, type the name of your Internet news server. If you are required to log on, click the My news server requires me to log on check box to select it. Click Next.
6. If you are required to log on, type your account name and password for your news server in the News Account Name and Password boxes, or click Log on using Secure Password Authentication (SPA). Choose the method recommended by your ISP. MSN requires SPA when when using the netnews.msn.com MSN news server.

7. Click Next in the Congratulations screen, and then click Finished. You can now set your default newsgroup,or click Close.
8. To set up your default News account, on the Tools menu, click Accounts. Click the News tab, click the account name you want as the default and then click Set As Default.
9. To select your connection method for the account, click Properties, click the Connection tab, and then from the list click to select either your local area network (LAN) or a dial-up connection.
10. Click OK and then Close to save all settings.

Subscribing to newsgroups using Outlook Express:
On the Tools menu, click Accounts.
Click Add, and then click News.
Enter your name as you wish it to be displayed in the newsgroups. Some people use their real names and some use nicknames - it's entirely up to you. Then click 'Next'.

Enter your email address. Then click 'Next'

Enter the name of the news server, which should be news.btinternet.com. Then click 'Next'

Click 'Finish'
Click 'Close' on the accounts window
If this is the first time you have set up this account in Outlook Express you will be asked 'Would you like to download newsgroups from the news account you added?' Click 'Yes'.
The list of newsgroups available through the BT Yahoo! Internet news server will then be downloaded. This can take some time, as there are many thousands of groups available. Once the headers are downloaded you can select which groups you wish to subscribe to. To narrow down your search, enter text in the box entitled 'Display newsgroups which contain' - for example, you could type 'bt'
Highlight your chosen newsgroup(s), then click on 'Subscribe'. An icon will appear beside each newsgroup you've selected. Then click 'OK'
You'll now see an extra folder in your folder list called news.btinternet.com with your subscriptions below it. Click on one of the newsgroups you subscribe to and the last 300 messages will download.

Reading and replying to messages
The last messages in the list are the most recent. Messages you have not read are in bold.
To reply to a message, make sure you have the correct one highlighted and click on the reply button at the top, as shown below.

The reply window will appear. Scroll to the bottom to add your comments. It may take up to 5 minutes for your post to appear on the newsgroup.
To see the latest posts, you may need to click on the 'synchronise' button.

Mailing Lists

A mailing list is a collection of names and addresses used by an individual or an organization to send material to multiple recipients. The term is often extended to include the people subscribed to such a list, so the group of subscribers is referred to as "the mailing list", or simply "the list".
An electronic mailing list (sometimes written as elist or e-list) is a special usage of e-mail that allows for widespread distribution of information to many Internet users. It is similar to a traditional mailing list — a list of names and addresses — as might be kept by an organization for sending publications to its members or customers, but typically refers to four things:
· A list of e-mail addresses,
· The people ("subscribers") receiving mail at those addresses
· The publications (e-mail messages) sent to those addresses
· And a reflector, which is a single e-mail address that, when designated as the recipient of a message, will send a copy of that message to all of the subscribers.
How automated electronic mailing lists work:
Electronic mailing lists are usually fully or partially automated through the use of special mailing list software and a reflector address that are set up on a server capable of receiving e-mail. Incoming messages sent to the reflector address are processed by the software, and, depending on their content, are acted upon internally (in the case of messages containing commands directed at the software itself) or are distributed to all e-mail addresses subscribed to the mailing list. Depending on the software, additional addresses may be set up for the purpose of sending commands. Many electronic mailing list servers have a special email address in which subscribers (or those that want to be subscribers) can send commands to the server to perform such tasks as subscribing and unsubscribing, temporarily halting the sending of messages to them, or changing available preferences. The common format for sending these commands is to send an email that contains simply the command followed by the name of the electronic mailing list the command pertains to. Examples: subscribe anylist or subscribe anylist John Doe. Some list servers also allow people to subscribe, unsubscribe, change preferences, etc. via a website.
Electronic mailing list servers can be set to forward messages to subscribers of a particular mailing list either individually as they are received by the list server or in digest form in which all messages received on a particular day by the list server are combined into one email that is sent once per day to subscribers. Some mailing lists allow individual subscribers to decide how they prefer to receive messages from the list server (individual or digest).

Two different types of mailing lists:
1. One type of electronic mailing list is an announcement list, which is used primarily as a one-way conduit of information and can only be "posted to" by selected people. This may also be referred to by the term newsletter. Newsletter and promotional emailing lists are employed in various sectors as parts of direct marketing campaigns.
2. A discussion list, in which any subscriber may post. On a discussion list, a subscriber uses the mailing list to send messages to all the other subscribers, who may answer in similar fashion. Thus, actual discussion and information exchanges can happen. Mailing lists of this type are usually topic-oriented (for example, politics, scientific discussion, joke contests), and the topic can range from extremely narrow to "whatever you think could interest us". In this they are similar to Usenet newsgroups, and share the same aversion to off-topic messages. The term discussion group encompasses both these types of lists and newsgroups.
On both discussion lists and newsletter lists precautions are taken to avoid spamming. Discussion lists often require every message to be approved by a moderator before being sent to the rest of the subscribers.The emails sent by whitelisted companies are not blocked by Spam Filters, which can often reroute these legitimate, non-spam emails.
Some mailing lists are open to anyone who wants to join them, while others require an approval from the list owner before one can join. Joining a mailing list is called "subscribing" and leaving a list is called "unsubscribing".

Mail Exploders, Lists, and Forwarders
It is a program that can forward copies of a message to the users in different domains.
The exploder uses a database to determine how to handle a message. Commonly called a mailing list, each entry in the database is a set of e-mail addresses. Furthermore, each entry in the database is assigned its own e-mail address(reflector address).
Mailing list Contents

friends joe@foobar.com, jill@bar.gov, tim@stateU.edu,
mary@acollege.edu
customers george@xyz.com, VP_marketing@news.com
Vball-interest hank@noexist.com, linda_s_smith@there.com,
john_Q_public@foobar.com

E-mail Gateways
Although a mail exploder can operate on any computer, forwarding an e-mail message to a large mailing list can require significant processing time. Thus, many organizations do not permit exploders or large mailing lists on conventional computers. Instead, the organization selects a smaall set of computers to run exploders and frowarders and froward e-mail. Thus a computer dedicated to the task of forwarding e-mail is often called a e-mail-gateway, or e-mail relay.

Chat Rooms
Internet relay chat(IRC)
Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is a form of real-time Internet chat or synchronous conferencing. It is mainly designed for group communication in discussion forums called channels, but also allows one-to-one communication via private message, as well as chat and data transfers via Direct Client-to-Client.
IRC was created by Jarkko Oikarinen in late August 1988 to replace a program called MUT (MultiUser talk). Oikarinen found inspiration in a chat system known as Bitnet Relay, which operated on the BITNET
Technical information
IRC is an open protocol that uses TCP and optionally TLS(transport layer security). An IRC server can connect to other IRC servers to expand the IRC network. Users access IRC networks by connecting a client to a server. There are many client and server implementations, such as mIRC and the Bahamut IRCd, respectively. Most IRC servers do not require users to log in, but a user will have to set a nickname before being connected.
IRC was originally a plain text protocol , which on request was assigned port 194/TCP by IANA(Internet Assigned Numbers Authority). However, the de facto has always been to run IRC on 6667/TCP and nearby port numbers (for example TCP ports 6112-6119) to avoid having to run the IRCd software with root privileges.
Commands and replies
IRC is based on a line-based structure with the client sending single-line messages to the server, receiving replies to those messages and receiving copies of some messages sent by other clients. In most clients users can enter commands by prefixing them with /. Depending on the command, these may either be handled entirely by the client, or - generally for commands the client does not recognize - passed directly to the server, possibly with some modification.
Due to the nature of the protocol, it is impossible for automated systems to pair a sent command with its reply.
Channels
The basic means of communication in an established IRC session is a channel. Channels in a server can be displayed using the command /list [#string] [-min #] [-max #] that lists all currently available channels, optionally filtering for parameters (#string for the entire or part of the name, with wildcards, and #min / #max for number of users in the channel).
Users can join to a channel using the command /join #channelname and send messages to it, which are relayed to all other users on the same channel.
Channels that are available across an entire IRC network are prepended with a ' # ', while those local to a server use '&'. Other non-standard and less common channel types include '+' channels — 'modeless' channels without operators, and '!' channels, a form of timestamped channel on normally non-timestamped networks.
Challenges
Issues in the original design of IRC were the amount of shared state data being a limitation on its scalability, the absence of unique user identifications leading to the nickname collision problem, lack of protection from netsplits by means of cyclic routing, the trade-off in scalability for the sake of real-time user presence information, protocol weaknesses providing a platform for abuse, no transparent and optimizable message passing, no encryption. Some of these issues have been addressed in Modern IRC.
· Attacks
Because IRC connections are usually unencrypted and typically span long time periods, they are an attractive target for malicious crackers. Because of this, careful security policy is necessary to ensure that an IRC network is not susceptible to an attack such as an IRC takeover war. IRC networks may also k-line or g-line users or networks that have a harming effect.
A small number of IRC servers support SSL connections for security purposes. This helps stop the use of packet sniffer programs to obtain the passwords of IRC users, but has little use beyond this scope due to the public nature of IRC channels. SSL connections require both client and server support (which may require the user to install SSL binaries and IRC client specific patches or modules on their computers).
IRC served as an early laboratory for many kinds of Internet attacks, such as using fake ICMP unreachable messages to break TCP-based IRC connections (nuking) to annoy users or facilitate takeovers.
· Abuse prevention
One of the most contentious technical issues surrounding IRC implementations, which survives to this day, is the merit of "Nick/Channel Delay" vs. "Timestamp" protocols. Both methods exist to solve the problem of denial-of-service attacks, but take very different approaches.
The problem with the original IRC protocol as implemented was that when two servers split and rejoined, the two sides of the network would simply merge their channels. If a user could join on a "split" server, where a channel which existed on the other side of the network was empty, and gain operator status, they would become a channel operator of the "combined" channel after the netsplit ended; if a user took a nickname which existed on the other side of the network, the server would kill both users when rejoining (i.e., 'nick-collision').
This was often abused to "mass-kill" all users on a channel, thus creating "opless" channels where no operators were present to deal with abuse. Apart from causing problems within IRC, this encouraged people to conduct denial of service attacks against IRC servers in order to cause netsplits, which they would then abuse.
· Nick/channel delay
The nick/channel delay (abbreviated ND/CD) solution to this problem was very simple. After a user signed off and the nickname became available, or a channel ceased to exist because all its users left (as often happens during a netsplit), the server would not allow any user to use that nickname or join that channel, respectively, until a certain period of time (the delay) had passed. The idea behind this was that even if a netsplit occurred, it was useless to an abuser because they could not take the nickname or gain operator status on a channel, and thus no collision of a nickname or 'merging' of a channel could occur. To some extent, this inconvenienced legitimate users, who might be forced to briefly use a different name (appending an underscore was popular) after rejoining.
· Timestamping
The alternative, the timestamp or TS protocol, took a different approach. Every nickname and channel on the network was assigned a timestamp – the date and time when it was created. When a netsplit occurred, two users on each side were free to use the same nickname or channel, but when the two sides were joined, only one could survive. In the case of nicknames, the newer user, according to their TS, was killed; when a channel collided, the members (users on the channel) were merged, but the channel operators on the "losing" side of the split lost their channel operator status.
TS is a much more complicated protocol than ND/CD, both in design and implementation, and despite having gone through several revisions, some implementations still have problems with "desyncs" (where two servers on the same network disagree about the current state of the network), and allowing too much leniency in what was allowed by the 'losing' side. Under the original TS protocols, for example, there was no protection against users setting bans or other modes in the losing channel which would then be merged when the split rejoined, even though the users who had set those modes lost their channel operator status. Some modern TS-based IRC servers have also incorporated some form of ND and/or CD in addition to timestamping in an attempt to further curb abuse.
Most networks today use the timestamping approach. The timestamp versus ND/CD disagreements caused several servers to split away from EFnet and form the newer IRCnet. After the split, EFnet moved to a TS protocol, while IRCnet used ND/CD.
NetworksThere are thousands of running IRC networks in the world. They run various implementations of IRC servers, and are administered by various groups of IRC operators, but the protocol exposed to IRC users is very similar, and all IRC networks can be accessed by the same client software.

The term chat room, or chatroom, is primarily used by mass media to describe any form of synchronous conferencing, occasionally even asynchronous conferencing. The term can thus mean any technology ranging from real-time online chat over instant messaging and online forums to fully immersive graphical social environments
A chat room is a Web site, part of a Web site, or part of an online service such as America Online, that provides a venue for communities of users with a common interest to communicate in real time. Forums and discussion groups, in comparison, allow users to post messages but don't have the capacity for interactive messaging. Most chat rooms don't require users to have any special software; those that do, such as Internet Relay Chat (IRC) allow users to download it from the Internet.
Chat room users register for the chat room of their choice, choose a user name and password, and log into a particular room (most sites have multiple chat rooms). Inside the chat room, generally there is a list of the people currently online, who also are alerted that another person has entered the chat room. To chat, users type a message into a text box. The message is almost immediately visible in the larger communal message area and other users respond. Users can enter chat rooms and read messages without sending any, a practice known as lurking.
Because chat room messages are spontaneous and instantly visible, there is a potential for abuse, which may or may not be intentional. Site hosts typically post a frequently asked questions (FAQ) list to guide users to appropriate chat room behavior, such as introducing yourself when you enter a room, making it clear when you are directing a question or response to a specific user, and reporting disruptive users, for example. Disruptive users may verbally abuse other chatters, monopolize the conversation, or even just disable it by repeatedly typing the same word or phrase into the conversation, a practice (much frowned upon) known as scrolling.
Chat rooms can be found that focus on virtually any aspect of human endeavor or interest: there are current communities based on classic movies, Irish ancestry, baton twirling, and psychic readings, for example. Various sites, such as Yahoo, provide a directory of chat sites. Others, such as MSN Web Communities, guide users through the steps required to create their own chat room.
Text-based chat:
Online chat is a way of communicating by sending text messages to people in the same chat-room in real-time. Some chat rooms such as Yahoo! use both text and voice simultaneously. The oldest form of true chat rooms are the text-based variety. Talkomatic, developed on the PLATO System around 1974, has a strong claim to have been the prototype of the text-only chat room. The most popular of this kind is Internet Relay Chat (IRC). The popularity of these kinds of chat rooms has waned over the years, and IRC's popularity has rapidly given way to instant messaging. Also a notable number of people were introduced to chat rooms from AOL and web chat sites.
There are also graphical user interface (GUI) text-based chat rooms which allow users to select an identifying icon and modify the look of their chat environment.

Graphical multi-user environments:
Visual chat rooms add graphics to the chat experience, in either 2D or 3D (employing virtual reality technology). These are characterized by using a graphic representation of the user (avatar) that can be moved about a graphic background or in a graphic environment. These virtual worlds are capable of incorporating elements such as games (in particular massively multiplayer online games) and educational material most often developed by individual site owners, who in general are simply more advanced users of the systems. The most popular environments also allow users to create or build their own spaces.
Some visual chat rooms also incorporate audio and video communications, so that users may actually see and hear each other. However, some find these types of environments cumbersome to use and actually an impediment to chatting.
Chat room activities:
The primary use of a chat room is to share information via text with a group of other users. New technology has enabled the use of file sharing and webcams to be included in some programs and almost all Internet chat or messaging services allow users to display or send to each other photos of themselves.
Games are also often played in chat rooms. Historic examples are initgame or Hunt the Wumpus on IRC.
Rules of behavior:
Chat rooms usually have stringent rules that they require users to follow in order to maintain integrity and safety for their users. Particularly in rooms for children, rules usually do not allow users to use offensive language, or to promote hate mail, violence and other negative issues. Also chat rooms often do not allow advertising in their rooms or flooding, which is continually filling the screen with repetitive text. Typing with caps lock on is usually considered shouting and is discouraged.[1]
Sometimes chat room venues are moderated either by limiting who is allowed to speak (not common), or by having moderation volunteers patrol the venue watching for disruptive or otherwise undesirable behaviour.
Yet, most commonly used chat rooms are not moderated and users may type what they personally choose to send.

Future of Information Technology

2010-03-22T01:55:00.000-07:00

Future of Information Technology
Information technology is a highly important aspect today. Having the ability to transfer data, store data and keep it safe is crucial in many ways. Without information technology many medical facilities and corporations would find it difficult to keep information stored securely.
Computers allow users to communicate with many people at once or in far away places. It stands to reason that will the development of better technology yearly, computers will play a vital role in the ongoing support of information technology in the future.
Computers allow users now to do many things such as writing much faster than a traditional typewriter or pen and paper would do. They also make it very possible to keep track of people, conduct business globally much easier than before and organize and store multiple files.
They also make education possible from remote locations and provide communication that far outreaches what a traditional telephone could ever do. Of course the human brain is far more advanced than a typical home computer.

The future of information technology may very well involve using computers to enhance the human brain. Common computers are expected to possess the same or nearly the same capabilities as the human brain in the future.
In another twenty five years or so it may be very likely that you will be able to have a computer that will possess the ability to feel emotions and have spiritual experiences. Of course this prediction will be met with skepticism as all others have been in the past.
The first gasoline powered vehicle was met with much scrutiny as was the first airplane. Society as a whole does not generally accept things that it can not understand or control. Believing that scientific technology can produce a computer that is capable of human emotion is so far-fetched that many simply will have to see it to believe it.
It does stand to reason however, that if developments have come as far as they have today, then having a better and more efficient information technology in the future is virtually a given.
More advanced computers that can help those with memory loss problems or virtually run your entire brain may seem too far in sci-fi land to believe but stranger things have happened.
Medical science has come a long way since the turn of the twentieth century. Many things have come into play that were never believed to be possible. The world may not ever see a computer that will retain memory of an individual’s life, but then again it may.
The computers in question will have the ability to hold images, videos and anything else that the memory retains within the human brain. Information will be kept forever, which will make it much easier to conduct personal and professional business.
Those who acquire Alzheimer’s Disease will have the ability to retain their memories and their personal life information in spite of the disease that typically takes all that away.
Keeping your personal life information and history safely stored in a computer may seem like a reach beyond belief but it very well may happen in the foreseeable future.

c programs

2010-02-25T03:28:00.000-08:00

Write a program to generate the following pattern:Output:-
1121123211234321123454321Solution:-#include #include void main(){int i,j;for (i=1;i<=5;i++) { for(j=4;j>=i;j--){printf(" ");}for(j=1;j<=i;j++) {printf("%d",j);} printf("\n"); }getch();}

#include#includevoid main(){int a,c1=0,c2;clrscr();printf("choose a no.");scanf("%d",&a);for(c2=1;c2<=a;c2++){if (a%c2==0){c1++;}if(c1!=2){printf("%d is a prime no.",a);}else{printf("%d is not a prime no.",a);}}getch();}

PROG:- Sum of Odd And Even No.s
#include#includevoid main(){int a[20],n,m,sum=0,sum2=0;clrscr();printf("enter the total no. to be inserted");scanf("%d",&m);clrscr();for(n=1;n<=m;n++);{printf("enter ur value");scanf("%d",&a[n]);if (a[n]%2==0){sum=sum+a[n];}else{sum2=sum2+a[n];}}printf("sum of even no.s is %d",sum);printf("\n sum of odd no.s is %d",sum2);getch();}

PROG:- Fibbnocci Series
#include#includevoid main(){int c,p=1,x=1,max;clrscr();printf("enter max. value");scanf("%d",&max);printf ("%d%d",p,x);while(max>x){c=p+x;x=p;p=c;printf("%d, ",c);}getch();}

PROG:- Add, Sub, Multi, Division
#include#include#includevoid main(){int a,b,c,sum,div,sub,mul;clrscr();printf("enter ur choice");printf("\n 1 Addition");printf("\n 2 Subtraction");printf(" \n 3 Multiplication");printf("\n 4 Division");printf("\n 5 Exit");scanf("%d",&a);printf("\n");switch(a){case 1:printf("enter 2 no.s");scanf("%d%d",&b,&c);sum=b+c;printf("ur result is %d",sum);break;case 2:printf("enter 2 no.s");scanf("%d%d",&b,&c);sub=b-c;printf("ur result is %d",sub);break;case 3:printf("enter 2 no.s");scanf("%d%d",&b,&c);mul=b*c;printf("ur result is %d",mul);break;case 4:printf("enter 2 no.s");scanf("%d%d",&b,&c);div=a/b;printf("ur result is %d",div);break;case 5:exit(0);break;default:printf("wrong choice");}getch();}

P2. * In Increment & Decrement Order
decrement+increament-#include#includevoid main(){int a,b,d,e;clrscr();for(a=1;a<=4;a++){for(b=1;b<=a;b++){printf("*");}printf("\n");}for(d=3;d>=1;d--){for(e=d;e>=1;e--){printf("*");}printf("\n");}getch();}______________Output--------------------****************

C Programs
P1. (Greater of 3 no.s)#include#includevoid main(){int a,b,c;clrscr();printf("enter 3 no.s of ur choice");scanf("%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c);if(a>b){if(a>c){printf("%d is greater",a);}}if(b>a){if(b>c){printf ("%d is greater",b);}}if(c>a){if(c>b){printf("%d is greater",c);}}getch();}

my personal details

2010-02-09T22:54:00.000-08:00

hi my name is vijay pal sharma from palwal district. i am persuing b.tech in I.T branch from SHRIRAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT PALWAL . i am now 4th sem.